CHAPTER 3

MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES
ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
 3.1 STRUCTURE OF
PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Living cells require substances from the external
environment to carry out living processes.
The  At the same time, the metabolic processes in
necessity of cells produce waste that need to be disposed of
from the cells
movement Cells must allow some substances to move into
of and out of the cells to maintain the living
processes.
substances  The movement of substances into and out of

across a the cell is regulated by the plasma membrane.

plasma
membrane
Structure of Plasma Membrane
According to the fluid mosaic model, protein molecules
float within the phospholipid bilayer, forming a mosaic
pattern that changes frequently
the fluid mosaic model proposed by S. J. Singer and G. L.
Nicholson in 1972
Each phospholipid molecule consists of:
• A polar head which is hydrophilic (attracted to water)
• A nonpolar tail which is hydrophobic (repels water)
Structure of Plasma Membrane
◦The heads of the phospholipid molecule (hydrophilic)
in the outer layer face the extracellular fluid,
◦The phospholipid heads in the inner layer face the
cytoplasm.
◦The tails of the phospholipid molecule (hydrophobic)
of the two layers face each other.
Structure of Plasma Membrane
There are various types of protein molecules
embedded partially or fully within the membrane.
The protein molecules are widely dispersed between
the phospholipid bilayer.
The protein molecules with channels or canals are
known as channel proteins,
the protein molecules that function as carriers are
called carrier proteins
Structure of Plasma Membrane
Some proteins and lipids have carbohydrate chains
attached to them, known as glycoprotein and
glycolipid respectively
Glycoprotein and glycolipid act as receptors to
hormones such as insulin,
It stabilise the membrane by forming hydrogen
bonds with water and act as antigens for cell
identification.
There are also cholesterol
molecules found between the
phospholipid molecules
Cholesterols make the
phospholipid bilayer stronger,
more flexible and less
permeable to water-soluble
substances such as ions.
The phospholipid bilayer,
proteins and cholesterols are
not static but form a dynamic
and flexible structure. This
contributes to the ‘fluid’
characteristic of the plasma
membrane and makes the
plasma membrane more
flexible.
 Permeability of a
plasma
membrane
A membrane is said to be permeable to a
substance if the membrane allows the
substance to pass through it freely.
On the contrary, a membrane is
impermeable if a substance is unable to
move across it.
The plasma membrane is a selectively
permeable membrane.
 only allows free movement of certain
molecules across it, and prevent or limit the
movement of other substances.
The plasma membrane has a selectively
permeable property due to its building
structure.
 The phospholipid bilayer and protein
determine the membrane permeability
towards specific substances
 3.2
CONCEPT OF MOVEMENT OF
SUBSTANCES ACROSS A
PLASMA MEMBRANE
Passive
transport
An analogy of passive
transport is like riding a
bicycle downhill.
The process does not involve
the use of energy.
Examples : Simple diffusion,
osmosis and facilitated
diffusion
 Simple diffusion
Simple diffusion is the movement of
molecules or ions from an area of
high concentration to an area of low
concentration.
The moving molecules are said to
move down the concentration
gradient until a dynamic equilibrium
is achieved.
This may occur with or without the
presence of a plasma membrane.
Examples : Lipid soluble molecules
(fatty acids and glycerol), oxygen and
carbon dioxide
 Osmosis is a passive transport
process that is similar to diffusion but
it involves only water molecules.

Osmosi Osmosis refers to the net movement

of water molecules from an area of
s high water potential (low solutes
concentration) to an area of low water
potential (high solutes concentration)
randomly through a selectively
permeable membrane.
 The selectively permeable membrane
is permeable to water but
impermeable to some solutes such as
sucrose molecules (Figure 3.5).
Water molecules
The same situation occurs in cells
through the phospholipid bilayer
Solutes/sucrose molecules
(Figure 3.6)
 Facilitated diffusion
Lipid-insoluble molecules such as ions, large
molecules such as amino acids and glucose are
unable to pass through the phospholipid bilayer.
 These substances move across the membrane
with the aid of transport proteins (carrier or
channel proteins).
This process is known as facilitated diffusion.
Facilitated diffusion does not require energy
the transport proteins transport molecules down
a concentration gradient.
The process continues until a dynamic
equilibrium is achieved when the concentration
of molecules is the same at both sides of
membranes.
Active transport
• The movement of
molecule or ion substances
across a plasma membrane
occurs against a
concentration gradient.
• It requires energy from
ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) molecules
generated during cellular
respiration.
 Active transport
 It requires specific carrier protein with
specific sites to bind with certain
molecules or ions.
Carrier proteins also possess receptors to
bind with ATP molecules.
Carrier proteins change shape when a
phosphate group attaches to it.
As a result, molecules or ions move across
a membrane
Active
transport
Active transport results in the
accumulation or excretion of
molecules or ions in the cell.
Carrier proteins involved in
active transport are known as
pumps.
For example, in animal cells, the
carrier proteins that transport
sodium ions to extracelullar, and
potassium ions into the cell are
called sodium-potassium pump.
 Active transport
There is another type of pump known
as the + proton pump.
 For example, the proton pumps that
are found on the epithelial cells lining
the stomach cavity.
Proton pump causes the acidity of the
stomach contents.
 Energy from the ATP enables the
hydrogen ion to be transported by the
carrier proteins (proton pump) towards
the extracellular fluid.
This causes an accumulation of the
hydrogen ion and acid production in the
stomach cavity
COMPARISON BETWEEN
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
 3.3
MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES
ACROSS A PLASMA MEMBRANE IN
LIVING ORGANISMS
Active and passive transport in living
organisms
Isotonic, hypotonic
and hypertonic
solutions
Generally, there are three
types of solutions: isotonic,
hypotonic and hypertonic.
As you have learned,
diffusion of water occurs by
osmosis from an area of high
water potential to an area of
low water potential across a
plasma membrane.
 The effects of hypotonic,
hypertonic and isotonic
solutions on animal cells
and plant cells

◦ The cell cytoplasm contains solutes such

as glucose and mineral salts.
◦ The fluid found in the cell is known as
intracellular fluid.
◦ Each cell is surrounded by extracellular
fluid.
◦ Therefore, the cell will always go through
the osmosis process and movement of
water across the plasma membrane,
depending on the water potential of the
extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid.
 EFFECT OF
HYPOTONIC
SOLUTION
When red blood cells are placed in
a hypotonic solution, water will
diffuse into the cells by osmosis,
causing the cells to swell and
finally burst.
This is because the plasma
membrane is too thin to withstand
the osmotic pressure built up in the
cells.
 The burst of red blood cells is
known as haemolysis.
EFFECT OF
HYPERTONIC
SOLUTION
When red blood cells are placed
in a hypertonic solution, water
will move out of
the cells by osmosis.
This will cause the cells to
shrink.
The red blood cells are said to
undergo crenation.
 EFFECT OF
ISOTONIC
SOLUTION
Water diffuses into and out
of the cell by osmosis at the
same rate.
No net movement of water
across the plasma
membrane.
The cells maintain their
normal shape.
 THE EFFECTS
OF
HYPOTONIC,
HYPERTONIC
AND ISOTONIC
SOLUTIONS ON
PLANT CELLS
 EFFECT OF
HYPOTONIC
SOLUTION
When plant cells are placed in a hypotonic
solution, water will diffuse into the
vacuoles by osmosis.
This will cause the vacuoles to expand
and push the cytoplasm and plasma
membrane against the cell wall.
In this condition, the cells are said to be
turgid.
Plant cells do not burst because the cell
wall is rigid and strong.
 EFFECT OF
HYPOTONIC
SOLUTION
 Turgor pressure is
important to plant cells
because it gives support
and maintains the shape
of cell.
 Cell turgidity causes
guard cell to swell to
allow the stomata to
remain open for
photosynthesis.
 EFFECT OF
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION

When plant cells are placed in

a hypertonic solution, water
will diffuse out of the vacuoles
by osmosis.
Vacuoles and the cytoplasm
will shrink, causing the
plasma membrane to be
pulled away from the cell wall.
 EFFECT OF
HYPERTONIC
SOLUTION
This process is known as
plasmolysis, causes leaves and
stems to bend downwards and
wilt.
Plasmolysed plant cells can
regain their turgidity if the cells
are returned to a hypotonic
solution immediately.
The cells are said to undergo
deplasmolysis
 EFFECT OF
ISOTONIC
SOLUTION
When the sap of the plant cell
and extracellular
solution are isotonic, water
potential is the same.
The movement of water diffusion
in and out of cells is the same.
Cells become flaccid.
 3.4
MOVEMENT OF
SUBSTANCES
ACROSS A PLASMA
MEMBRANE AND ITS
APPLICATION IN DAILY LIFE
Phenomenon of
plant wilting
Excessive use of fertilisers may cause wilting in
plants.
 Dissolved fertilisers will cause soil water to be
hypertonic to the sap cell of roots.
Consequently, water will diffuse by osmosis from
the roots’ cell sap to the soil, and cells will
become plasmolysed.
 Cells in plants will recover once they are
watered. However, if the period of plasmolysis is
prolonged, wilted plants will eventually die.
Rehydration drinks

Rehydration drinks such

as oral rehydration salts
help to recover loss of
water and electrolytes in
individuals with
diarrhoea.
Isotonic drinks
Isotonic drinks help
athletes to recover loss
of water and electrolytes
such as potassium and
sodium through
perspiration.
Saline
solutions
Saline solutions,
normally used in
medicine, are isotonic
solution to the blood
plasma. It contains 0.85–
0.90 g sodium chloride
per 100 ml.
 Liposomes
Liposomes are vesicles that
contain aqueous solution
surrounded by a phospholipid
bilayer membrane.
Liposomes are used to
protect drugs or active
substances taken orally from
being destroyed by gastric
juices.
This way, drugs can reach
the target cells.
Reverse osmosis
Reverse osmosis is a technology
commonly used to extract fresh
water from seawater using the
desalination process.
In a reverse osmosis equipment,
pressure is applied to push the
seawater through a semi-permeable
membrane.
The membrane allows water
molecules to pass through it but not
foreign particles, salt and
microorganisms.
As a result, only pure fresh water is
released