BIO-INSTRUMENTATION

SYSTEMS
Objectives of Instrumentation System
• Information gathering: Measure variables to aid man in his quest for
knowledge.
• Diagnosis: measurements are made to help in detection and hopefully
correction of some malfunction of a system being measured.
• (eg. “Troubleshooting equipment.”)
• Evaluation: measurements are used to determine the ability of a
system to meet its functional requirements. Classiefied as
“Proof of performance” or “Quality control” tests.
Monitoring: instrumentation is used to monitor some process or
operation to obtain information
About the state of the system.
Control: Instrumentation can be sued to automatically control the
operation of a system.
Types of Biomedical Instrumentation
• Clinical instrumentation:
• Research Instrumentation.
• Stds discuss the differences.
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN MEASURING A
LIVING SYSTEM
• Inaccessibility of variables to Measurement
Difficulty in gaining access to the variable being
measured. E.g. The brain
• Variability of the Data
Measurement taken under a fixed set of conditions at one
time will not necessarily be the same as similar
measurements made under the same condition at another
time.
• Lack of knowledge about Interrelationships
Lack knowledge about interrelationships within the
body, makes explanation of variability of measured
values difficult.
• Interaction Among Physiological Systems
The interaction within a given system and among the
major systems are difficult to define.
A stimulation of one part of a given system generally
affects all other parts of that system in some way as a
result of large number of feedback loops.
E.g. The brain and other parts of nervous system
• Effect of the Transducer on the Measurement
Measurement is affected by the presence of the
measuring transducer in the body.
E.g.. Large flow transducer placed in the blood-stream
partially blocks the vessels and changes the pressure-
flow characteristics of the system.
• Artifacts
Artifact is any component of a signal that is extraneous
to the variable represented by the signal.
E.g. Random noise generated within instrument, cross
talk and movement.
• Energy Limitations
Many physiological measurement technique require that
a certain amount of energy be applied to the living system
in order to obtain measurement. E.g. Resistance
measurement require the flow of electric current through
the tissue or blood being measured.
• Safety Consideration
The methods employed in measuring variables in a living
human subject must in no way endanger the life or normal
functioning of the subject.
Classifications of Biomedical Instruments
• The sensed quantity
• The principle of transduction
• The organ system for measurement
• The clinical medicine specialties
• Based on the activities involved in the medical care,
medical instrumentation may be divided into three
categories:
• Diagnostic devices
• Therapeutic devices
• Monitoring devices
Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…

• Measurand
• Physical quantity, property, or condition that the system measures
• Biopotential
• Pressure
• Flow
• Dimension (imaging)
• Displacement (velocity, acceleration, and force)
• Impedance
• Temperature
• Chemical concentrations
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…
Measurement Range Frequency, Hz Method
Blood flow 1 to 300 mL/s 0 to 20 Electromagnetic or ultrasonic
Blood pressure 0 to 400 mmHg 0 to 50 Cuff or strain gage
Cardiac output 4 to 25 L/min 0 to 20 Fick, dye dilution
Electrocardiography 0.5 to 4 mV 0.05 to 150 Skin electrodes
Electroencephalography 5 to 300  V 0.5 to 150 Scalp electrodes
Electromyography 0.1 to 5 mV 0 to 10000 Needle electrodes
Electroretinography 0 to 900  V 0 to 50 Contact lens electrodes
pH 3 to 13 pH units 0 to 1 pH electrode
pCO2 40 to 100 mmHg 0 to 2 pCO2 electrode
pO2 30 to 100 mmHg 0 to 2 pO2 electrode
Pneumotachography 0 to 600 L/min 0 to 40 Pneumotachometer
2 to 50
Respiratory rate 0.1 to 10 Impedance
breaths/min
Temperature 32 to 40 °C 0 to 0.1 Thermistor
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…
• Sensor
• Converts a physical measurand to an electrical output
• Should respond only to the form of energy present in the measurand
• Should be minimally invasive (ideally noninvasive)
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…

• The specifications for a typical blood pressure sensor.

• Sensor specifications for blood pressure sensors are determined by a
committee composed of individuals from academia, industry, hospitals, and
government
Specification Value
Pressure range –30 to +300 mmHg
Overpressure without damage –400 to +4000 mmHg
Maximum unbalance ±75 mmHg
Linearity and hysteresis ± 2% of reading or ± 1 mmHg
Risk current at 120 V 10 A
Defibrillator withstand 360 J into 50 
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…
• A hysteresis loop.
• The output curve obtained when
increasing the measurand is S ensor
different from the output signal
obtained when decreasing the
measurand.

M easurand
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…

• (a) A low-sensitivity sensor has low gain. (b) A high sensitivity sensor
has high gain.

S ensor S ensor
signal signal

M easurand M easurand

(a) (b)
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…
• Most sensors are analog and provide a continuous range of
amplitude values for output (a).
• Other sensors yield the digital output (b).
• Digital output has poorer resolution, but does not require conversion
before being input to digital computers and is more immune to
interference
Amplitude

Amplitude
T im e T im e

(a) (b)
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…
• Bioinstrumentation should be designed with a specific signal in mind.
• Table shows a few specifications for an electrocardiograph
• The values of the specifications, which have been agreed upon by a committee, are
drawn from research, hospitals, industry, and government.

Specification Value
Input signal dynamic range ±5 mV
Dc offset voltage ±300 mV
Slew rate 320 mV/s
Frequency response 0.05 to 150 Hz
Input impedance at 10 Hz 2.5 M
Dc lead current 0.1 A
Return time after lead switch 1s
Overload voltage without damage 5000 V
Risk current at 120 V 10 A
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…
(a) An input signal which exceeds the dynamic range.
(b) The resulting amplified signal is saturated at 1 V.
Am plitude

5 mV

Dynam ic
(a) Tim e Range

-5 m V

Am plitude

1V

(b)
Tim e

-1 V
 …Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…
• DC offset voltage is the amount a signal may be moved from its
baseline and still be amplified properly by the system. Figure
shows an input signal without (a) and with (b) offset.

Amplitude

(a) Time

A m p litu d e

(b) D c o ffse t
T im e
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…
• The frequency response of a device is the range of frequencies
of a measurand that it can handle.
• Frequency response is usually plotted as gain versus frequency.
• Figure shows Frequency response of the electrocardiograph.

1.0

A m plitude

0.1
0.05 H z 150 H z
F requency
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…

• Linearity is highly desirable for simplifying signal processing

(a) A linear system fits the equation y = mx + b.
(b) A nonlinear system does not fit a straight line.

O utput O utput

Input Input

(a) (b)
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…

• All bioinstrumentation observes the measurand either continuously or periodically. However, computer-based
systems require periodic measurements since by their nature, computers can only accept discrete numbers at
discrete intervals of time.
(a) Continuous signals have values at every instant of time.
(b) Discrete-time signals are sampled periodically and do not provide values between these sampling
times.
Amplitude

Amplitude
T im e T im e

(a) (b)
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…
• Signal conditioning
• Amplify, filter, match the impedance of the sensor to the
display
• Convert analog signal to digital
• Process the signal
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…

• Output display
• Results must be displayed in a form that the human operator can perceive
• Numerical, Graphical, Discrete or continuous, Permanent or temporary, Visual or
acoustical
• Auxiliary elements
• Data storage
• Data transmission
• Control and feedback
• Calibration signal
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…

• Panels and series

• Certain groups of measurements are often ordered together because
they are very commonly used or because they are related.
• This may occur even if the measurements are based on different
principles or are taken with different sensors.
• Table in next slide is an example of one of these groups of
measurements, which are called panels or series.
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System…
• Complete blood count for a male subject.
Laboratory test Typical value
Hemoglobin 13.5 to 18 g/dL
Hematocrit 40 to 54%
Erythrocyte count 4.6 to 6.2  106/ L
Leukocyte count 4500 to 11000/ L
Neutrophil 35 to 71%
Band 0 to 6%
Lymphocyte 1 to 10%
Differential count
Monocyte 1 to 10%
Eosinophil 0 to 4%
Basophil 0 to 2%
…Generalized Medical Instrumentation System

• Hemoglobin is the protein which caries oxygen in the bloodstream.

• Hematocrit is the percent of solid material in a given volume of blood
after it has been centrifuged.
• An erythrocyte is a red blood cell.
• A leukocyte is a white blood cell.
• The differential count tells how many of each type of white blood cell there
are in one microliter of blood.
• Unusual values for different leukocytes can be indicative of the immune
system fighting off foreign bodies.
Errors in measurements…
• When we measure a variable, we seek to determine the true value, as shown in
Figure (next slide) .
• This true value may be corrupted by a variety of errors. For example
• Movement of electrodes on the skin may cause an undesired added voltage called an artifact.
• Electric and magnetic fields from the power lines may couple into the wires and cause an
undesired added voltage called interference
• Thermal voltages in the amplifier semiconductor junctions may cause an undesired added
random voltage called noise. Temperature changes in the amplifier electronic components
may cause undesired slow changes in voltage called drift.
• We must evaluate each of these error sources to determine their size and what we
can do to minimize them.
…Errors in measurements…
(a) Signals without noise are uncorrupted.
(b) Interference superimposed on signals causes error.
Frequency filters can be used to reduce noise and interference.

(a) (b)
…Errors in measurements…
(a) Original waveform.
(b) An interfering input may shift the baseline.
(c) A modifying input may change the gain.

(a) (b) (c)

Accuracy and precision…
• Resolution
• the smallest incremental quantity that can be reliably measured.
• a voltmeter with a larger number of digits has a higher resolution than
one with fewer digits.
• However, high resolution does not imply high accuracy.
• Precision
• the quality of obtaining the same output from repeated
measurements from the same input under the same conditions.
• High resolution implies high precision.
• Repeatability
• the quality of obtaining the same output from repeated
measurements from the same input over a period of time.
…Accuracy and precision…
• Data points with
(a) low precision and (b) high precision.
…Accuracy and precision…
• Accuracy
• Generally defined as the largest expected error between
actual and ideal output signals.
• the difference between the true value and the measured
value divided by the true value.

• Obtaining the highest possible precision,

repeatability, and accuracy is a major goal in
bioinstrumentation design.
…Accuracy and precision…
• Data points with
(a) low accuracy and (b) high accuracy
Calibration…
• Measuring instruments should be calibrated against a standard that has
an accuracy 3 to 10 times better than the desired calibration accuracy.
• The accuracy of the standard should be traceable to the institutions
regulating the standards (National Institute of Standards and
Technology, TSI, etc.) .
Calibration…
• If the instrument is linear,
• its output can be set to zero for zero input. Then a one-point calibration
defines the calibration curve that plots output versus input (next slide).
• If the linearity is unknown,
• a two-point calibration should be performed and these two points plus the
zero point plotted to ensure linearity (next slide).
• If the resulting curve is nonlinear,
• many points should be measured and plotted to obtain the calibration curve.
• If the output cannot be set to zero for zero input,
• measurements should be performed at zero and full scale for linear
instruments and at more points for nonlinear instruments.
• Calibration curves should be obtained at several expected
temperatures to determine temperature drift of the zero point and
the gain.
…Calibration
(a) The one-point calibration may miss nonlinearity.
(b) The two-point calibration may also miss nonlinearity.

O utput O utput

Input Input

(a) (b)
Statistics
• Mean
• If we make n measurements of x, for example of the weights of a population,
we may wish to report an estimate of them in a condensed way.
• The simplest statistic is the estimated sample mean

x
 x i
where i = 1, 2,…n.
n
Statistics
• Standard Deviation
• A measure of the spread of data about the mean is the estimated sample
standard deviation

s
 (x  x)
i
2

n 1
• Used with the mean for symmetric distributions of numerical data.
Statistics
• Standard deviation of the mean (standard error of the mean (SEM))
• Expresses the variability to be expected among the means in future samples,
whereas the standard deviation describes the variability to be expected among
individuals in future samples.

sx 
s
n 1
Gaussian Distribution…
• The spread (distribution) of data may be rectangular, skewed,
Gaussian, or other.
• The Gaussian distribution is given by
 ( X   ) 2 /( 2 2 )
e
f (X ) 
2 

where μ is the true mean and σ is the true standard deviation of a very
large number of measurements.
…Gaussian Distribution
• For the normal distribution, 68% of the data lies within ±1 standard deviation. By measuring
samples and averaging, we obtain the estimated mean , which has a smaller standard deviation sx.
 is the tail probability that xs doesE stim
notated
differ
m eanfrom
x Pby than .
morestandard
opulation
s
standard deviation s x deviation s

Frequency

d
a
- s m +s x
M ean
Poisson Probability…
• The Poisson probability density function is another type of distribution.
• It can describe, among other things, the probability of radioactive decay events, cells flowing
through a counter, or the incidence of light photons.
• The probability that a particular number of events K will occur in a measurement
(or during a time) having an average number of events m is

e mm K
p ( K , m) 
K!
• The standard deviation of the Poisson distribution is
m
…Poisson Probability
• A typical Poisson distribution for m = 3.
0.2
x x

x
x

p 0.1
x

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
K
Hypothesis testing…
• In hypothesis testing, there are two hypotheses.
• H0, the null hypothesis, is a hypothesis that assumes that the variable in the experiment will
have no effect on the result
• Ha is the alternative hypothesis that states that the variable will affect the results.
• For any population, one of the two hypotheses must be true.
• The goal of hypothesis testing is to find out which hypothesis is true by sampling
the population.
• In reality, H0 is either true or false and we draw a conclusion from our tests of
either true or false. This leads to four possibilities (next slide)
…Hypothesis testing…
• The four outcomes of hypothesis testing.

Conclusion Real situation

H0 true Ha true

Accept H0 Correct decision Type II error, p = b

Reject H0 Type I error, p = a Correct decision

…Hypothesis testing…
• Equivalent table of the table given in previous slide for results relating
to a condition or disease.

Test result Has condition?

No Yes

Negative True negative (TN) False negative (FN)

Postitive False positive (FP) True positive (TP)

…Hypothesis testing…
• The terms in the Table in previous slide are useful for defining
measures that describe the proportion of, for example, a disease in a
population and the success of a test in identifying it.
• Incidence
• is the number of cases of a disease during a stated period, such as x cases per
1000 per year.
…Hypothesis testing…
• Prevalence
• the number of cases of a disease at a given time such as y cases per 1000.
• It is all diseased persons divided by all persons.

TP  FN
Prevalence 
TN  TP  FN  FP
…Hypothesis testing…
• Sensitivity
• the probability of a positive test result when the disease is present.
• Among all diseased persons, it is the percent who test positive.
TP
Sensitivit y  100%
TP  FN
• Specificity
• the probability of a negative diagnostic result in the absence of the disease.
• Among all normal persons, it is the percent who test negative.

TN
Specificit y  100%
TN  FP
…Hypothesis testing…
• Considering only those who test positive, positive predictive value (PPV) is the
ratio of patients who have the disease to all who test positive.
TP
PPV  100%
TP  FP

• Considering only those who test negative, negative predictive value (NPV) is the
ratio of nondiseased patients to all who test negative.

TN
NPV  100%
TN  FN
…Hypothesis testing
• The test result threshold is set to minimize false positives and false
negatives.
N o rm a l T h re sh o ld
p o p u la tio n

T ru e F a ls e
n e g a tive p o s itive , p = a

D is e a s e d
p o p u la tio n
F a ls e T ru e
n e g a tive , p = b p o s itive
Test questions
• Draw the Generalized Medical Instrumentation System and explain
any 5 key part.
NERNST EQUATION
• The Nernst equation provides an explanation for the
electrochemical equilibrium distribution of an ion between
two compartments, which are divided by a membrane
containing channels selective to that particular ion.

• In an ideal scenario, the membrane that separates the two

compartments exclusively permits the passage of the specific
ion under consideration, while blocking the passage of any
other ions. The ion's distribution across the membrane is
influenced by the concentration gradient of the ion,
resulting in the creation of a potential difference across the
membrane.

• At equilibrium, this potential difference is described by the

Nernst equation, and is referred to as the equilibrium
potential (Veq.) or Nernst potential for that ion.
• The Nernst equation can be derived by considering the
differences in chemical potential and electrical
potential between two solutions that are separated by a
membrane that contains selective ionic channels.
• Two solution compartments are shown in Fig. 1; one is designated as i and the
other as o. Because of our interest in biological systems, i and o represent the
intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments, respectively.

• Each compartment contains the salt XY. In this example, [XY]i > [XY]o. In this
example, the membrane separating the two compartments contains ion channels
selective for the cation X+, but not for the counter-ion Y−. While, X+ can move
down its concentration gradient from compartment i to o through channels
selective for X+, Y− cannot.

• Consequently, this leads to charge separation across the plasma membrane and
leads to the establishment of an electrical gradient across the membrane. This
potential difference across the membrane, Vm, can be measured by a highly
sensitive voltmeter.
• Vm = Vi − Vo, where Vi is the potential in compartment i (analogous to the
intracellular compartment), and Vo is the potential in compartment o (analogous to
the extracellular compartment).

• At some point, the size of the potential difference across the plasma membrane
becomes large enough to counter-balance the concentration gradient. At this
point, an electrochemical equilibrium is established and no further net movement
of ion X+ occurs across the membrane.

• Therefore, the intracellular total chemical potential of ion X may be defined as:

where μiX is the total intracellular chemical potential for ion X, μ0X is the standard
chemical potential for ion X, [X]i is the intracellular concentration of ion X
Similarly, we can define the extracellular total chemical potential of ion X as:

where μoX is the total extracellular chemical potential for ion X, [X]o is the
extracellular concentration of ion X,

At equilibrium, the following condition must be met:

Therefore,
Simplifying and rearranging Equation 4, we obtain the following:

Further simplification of the equation above yields the following:

The electrical potential difference between the intracellular and extracellular

compartments (Vi − Vo) defines the potential difference across the plasma
membrane, simply referred to as the membrane potential (Vm). We can,
therefore, state the following:
Replacing Vi − Vo in Equation 6 above with Vm, we obtain the following:

Finally, solving for Vm, we obtain the Nernst equation:

Nernst equation for ions of physiological interest
• Differences in chemical potential are due to differences in
concentration. The difference in chemical potential can be
measured as an electrical potential when it is expressed across a
membrane or an electrode surface. The difference in electrical
potential in millivolts at 20 °C

where C1 and C2 are concentrations in the same units. Calculate

the electrical potential difference (and give its direction) for the
following case: Solution I contains 100 mMol/L KC1 and Solution
II contains 10 mMol/L KC1. The membrane between I and II is
permeable to K+ only.
Biopotential
Electrodes
 What are Biopotential Electrodes?
• An electrode is a conductor that provides transduction between ionic and electronic
conduction
Electrodes used in instrumentation systems
• Surface electrodes

Used to measure the potential available from the skin surface and also
used to sense potential from the heart. E.g. suction cup electrode, multipoint
electrode, floating surface electrode.
 What are Biopotential Electrodes?
• Micro electrodes

Used to measure potential within a single cell. Microelectrode is generally located

within the cell whereas the reference electrode is placed outside the cell. E.g. metallic
electrode and micropipette.
Electrodes used in instrumentation systems
• Depth electrodes

Used to study electrical activity of neuron of the superficial layers of the brain.
They are also used to measure the oxygen tension.
Electrodes used in instrumentation systems
• Needle electrodes

Used to measure the peripheral nerve action potential (Electro-neurography).

It resembles are medicine dropper. Types are mono-poplar needle electrodes
and bipolar needle electrode.
Electrodes used in instrumentation systems
• Chemical electrodes

Used to measure the pH content and pO2 of blood. They are used to determine
the oxygen content CO2 content in blood. E.g. Hydrogen electrode, practical
reference electrode, pH electrode, pO2 electrode and pCO2 electrode.
What are Biopotential Electrodes?
• Bioelectricity is a phenomenon that arises because there are various ions moving within the
bodies of living organisms

• In other words, charge conduction within a living organism mainly happens by ionic conduction

• Biopotential electrodes therefore function to provide transduction of biosignals from ionic to

electronic conduction, so that medical instruments can process them
Use of Biopotential Electrodes
• Biopotential Electrodes are used to acquire medically significant biosignals
• Examples of such signals are:
• ECG (Electrocardiogram)
• EMG (Electromyogram)
• EEG (Electroencephalogram)
How Biopotential Electrodes Work
• The transduction function is carried out by electrodes that consist of electrical conductors in
contact with the aqueous ionic solutions
• At the interface between an electrode and an ionic solution redox reactions occur, resulting in
charge transfer between the electrode and ionic solution (electrolyte)
• The interaction between the metal and electrolyte causes an electrical potential difference to be
generated, known as the half-cell potential
• Different characteristic potentials occurs for different metals
Polarizable and Non-polarizable Electrodes
• Perfectly polarizable electrodes are those in which no actual
charge crosses the electrode-electrolyte interface. The
behaviour is like a capacitor

• Perfectly non-polarizable electrodes are those in which

current freely passes across the electrode-electrolyte
interface. Electrode interface impedance is represented as a
resistor

• Both types cannot be perfectly fabricated in practice, but it is

possible to fabricate electrodes to closely approximate their
characteristics
Types of Biopotential Electrodes
• Body Surface Electrodes: They are placed on the body surface
(skin) for recording bioelectric signals. They are non-invasive.
Common types are metal plate electrodes

• Intracavity and Intratissue Electrodes: These are placed at targeted

sites within the body. They are generally small and do not require
special electrolytic coupling fluid

• Micro Electrodes: These are very small electrodes used within the
body to study the behaviour of cells and thus are smaller than the
cells being studied
Example Applications of Biopotential
Electrodes
Application Biopotential Type of Electrode
Ag/AgCl with sponge
Cardiac monitoring ECG
Ag/AgCl with hydrogel
Ag/AgCl with sponge
Infant cardiopulmonary Ag/AgCl with hydrogel
ECG impedance
monitoring Thin-film
Filled elastomer dry
Gold cups
Sleep encephalography EEG Ag/AgCl cups
Active electrodes
Diagnostic muscle activity EMG Needle
TRANSDUCERS
 WHAT IS A TRANSDUCER ?
• A transducer is a device which transforms a non-
electrical physical quantity (i.e. temperature, sound or
light) into an electrical signal (i.e. voltage, current,
capacity)

• In other word it is a device that is capable of converting

the physical quantity into a proportional electrical
quantity such as voltage or current.

Pressure Voltage
TRANSDUCERS

Optical transducer

Ultrasonic transducer

Magnetostriction transducer

Potentiometer transducer

Electromagnet transducer

Piezoelectric transducer

Venturi transducer
Hot wire transducer LVDT transducer
TRANSDUCERS

Temperature transducers Humidity transducers

Photovoltaic transducers
Chemical transducers
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSDUCERS
• Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to each other
i.e. the sensing element and transduction element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device producing
measurable response to change in physical conditions.
• The transduction element convert the sensor output to suitable
electrical form.
 TRANSDUCERS SELECTION FACTORS
1. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to produce detectable output.

2. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range requirement and have a good resolution

over the entire range.

4. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.

5. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when measuring mechanical quantities. There are

situation where the actual quantity is being measured is in one plane and the transducer is subjected to

variation in another plan.

6. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-output relationship as described by the

transfer function so as to avoid errors.

7. Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected on the basis of operating
principle used by them. The operating principle used may be resistive, inductive,
capacitive , optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.
8. Transient and frequency response : The transducer should meet the desired time
domain specification like peak overshoot, rise time, setting time and small dynamic error.
9. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input impedance and low output
impedance to avoid loading effects.
10. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the transducer selected to work
under specified environmental conditions maintains its input- output relationship and does
not break down.
11. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be minimally sensitive to
unwanted signals and highly sensitive to desired signals.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

• Analog and digital transducers.

• Primary and secondary transducer.
• Transducers and inverse transducers.
• On the basis of transduction principle
used.
• Active and Passive Transducers
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS
Transducers ,on the basis of nature of output signal, may be classified into analog and digital
transducers.

• Analog transducers converts input signal into output signal, which is

a continuous function of time such as THERMISTOR ,strain gauge,
LVDT , thermocouple etc.
• Digital transducers converts input signal into the output signal in the
form of pulses e.g. it gives discrete output. These transducers are
becoming more popular nowadays because of advantages associated
with digital measuring instruments and also due to the fact that digital
signals can be transmitted over a long distance without causing much
distortion due to amplitude variation and phase shift.
PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS
Transducers on the basis of methods of applications, may be classified into primary and
secondary transducers.

• When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducers and

physical phenomenon is converted into the electrical form directly
then such a transducer is called the primary transducer.
• For example: A THERMISTOR used for the measurement of
temperature fall I this category. The THERMISTOR senses the
temperature directly and causes the change in resistor with the change
in temperature.
SECONDARY TRANDUCERS
• When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and
then its output being of some form other than input signal is given as
input to a transducer for conversion into electrical from, them such a
transducer falls in the category of secondary transducers.
• For example , in case of pressure measurement , bourdon tube is a
primary sensor which converts pressure first into displacement, then
the displacement is converted into an output voltage by an LVDT. In
this case LVDT is a secondary transducer.
TRANSDUCERS
• Transducers as already defined , is a device that converts
a non electrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
Normally a transducer and associated circuit has a non
electrical input and an electrical output.

• For example : a thermocouple , photo conductive cell

pressure gauge , strain gauge.
 INVERSE TRANSDUCERS
• It is a device that converts an electrical quantity into a non electrical
quantity .it is a precision actuator having an electrical input and a low
power non electrical output.

• For example a piezoelectric crystal and translational and angular moving

coil elements can be employed as inverse transducers. A most useful
application of inverse transducers is in feed back measuring systems.
THE BASIS OF TRANSDUCTION
PRICIPLE USED

• Resistive Transducers.
• Capacitive Transducers.
• Inductive Transducers.
• Voltage and current Generating Transducers.
ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS
Transducers on the basis of methods of energy conversion used, may be classified into active and passive transducers.

• Self generating type transducers i.e the transducers which

develop their output in the form of electrical voltage or
current without any auxiliary source.
• Normally such transducers give very small output, therefore,
use of amplifier becomes essential.
• For example TACHO generators used for measurements of
angular velocity, thermocouples used for measurement of
temperature, piezoelectric crystal used for measurement of
force.
CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE
TRANSDUCERS
PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Transducers in which electrical parameters i.e
resistance, inductance or capacitance changes with the
change in input signal, are called the passive
transducers. These transducers require external power
source for energy conversion. In such transducers
electrical parameters i.e resistance inductance or
capacitance causes a change in voltage ,current or
frequency of the external power source.
• For example resistive capacitive inductive transducers.
TRANSDUCERS
•
CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE
TRANSDUCERS
THERMISTOR

Resistance
Temperature

A THERMISTOR is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly

with temperature. Semi-conductor thermistors have a Negative Temperature Coefficient
(NTC). i.e. as temperature increases, the resistance decreases.
The word is a contraction of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used
as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors, self-resetting over current protectors, and
self-regulating heating elements.
STRAIN GUAGE

• The Strain Gauge is an example

of a passive transducer that uses
electrical resistance variation in
wires to sense the strain
produced by a force on the wire.
It is a very versatile detector
and transducer for measuring
weight, pressure, mechanical
force or displacement.

Strain gauge: how they look like

The construction of a bonded strain gauge
shows a fine wire looped back and forth on a
mounting plate, which is usually cemented to
the element that undergoing stress.
FROM THE EQUATION OF
RESISTANCE,

• R = resistance • A = the area of the conductor

• ρ = specific resistance of the in square meters
conductor material • When a strain produced by a
• L = the length of the force is applied on the wires,
conductor in meters L increase and A decrease.
THERMOCOUPLE
.

As the junction temperature increases a small voltage is created in the loop. The
voltage produced at the junction of the dissimilar metals is due to a phenomenon called
the “Seebeck Effect”.

• The higher the temperature at the junction, the greater the voltage produced by that
junction.

• The relationship between voltage and temperature is constant and therefore will graph
as a linear line.
PROS AND CONS
Pros
• ▫ They are inexpensive.
• ▫ They are rugged and reliable.
• ▫ They can be used over a wide temperature range.
Cons
• ▫ low output voltage
• ▫ low sensitivity
• ▫ non-linearity
• ▫ electrical connections
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
• Passive inductive transducers require an external
source of power.
• The Differential transformer is a passive inductive
transformer, well known as Linear Variable
Differential Transformer (LVDT).
It consists basically of a primary winding and two
secondary windings, wound over a hollow tube and
positioned so that the primary is between two of its
secondaries.

• An iron core slides within the tube and therefore

affects the magnetic coupling between the primary
and two secondaries.
• When the core is in the centre , the voltage
induced in the two secondaries is equal.
• When the core is moved in one direction of centre,
the voltage induced in one winding is increased and
that in the other is decreased. Movement in the
opposite direction reverses this effects.
ADVANTAGES

• It has high accuracy and good stability.

• Easy to fabricate and install.
• The transfer characteristics is linear.
• Input is directly proportional to output.
• They can withstand high temperature.
• It consume very less power.
• It has low hysteresis loss and good repeatability.
• Rugged construction.
• Its output is very high.
DISADVANTAGES

• LVDT is proof to errors due to temperature.

• For getting the appreciable differential output

relatively large displacement is required .

• LVDT is sensitive to straight magnetic fields.

• The dynamic response is limited for LVDT due to

mass of core.
TRANSDUCERS
Application of Transducers
Type Principle of operation Application
1. DISPLACEMENT Displacement moves a contact slider on a Limb movement, joint
resistance
Variable resistance flexion (goniometer)

Strain gauge Deformation leads to change in resistance Blood vessel distension

I. Wire
II. Semiconductor
Linear variable differential Inductive coupling on two coils change Limb movement
with displacement
transformer (LVDT)

Capacitance Variation in separation plates of a Ballistocardiography

capacitor produces change in capacitor

Optical Light intensity change with displacement Digital

plethysmography

Magnetostriction Movement of magnetic field produces Finger movement

variation in effective electrical resistance
of materials

Ultrasonic Time interval between emitted ultrasound pulse Brain midline detection
and pulse received back after reflection is
proportional to the distance between emitter and
reflector
 TRANSDUCERS
Application of Transducers
Type Principle of operation Application
2. VELOCITY
Potentiometer Time differential of voltage from a Joint movement
linear/circular resistance proportional to
linear/angular velocity.

Potential generated across a wire moving in

Electromagnet a magnetic field proportional to velocity. Gait analysis

Doppler frequency shift

between emitted and received wave related Heart-wall
ultrasonic to velocity.

3. ACCELERATION
Strain gauge A displacement sensor affixed to an inertial Hand movement
platform.
Piezoelectric Time differential of voltage generated related Muscle contraction
to acceleration
Electromagnetic Time differential of electromagnetic Gait studies
induction, EMF produced proportional to
acceleration.
 TRANSDUCERS
Application of Transducers
Type Principle of operation Application
4. FLOW
Hot wire Cooling of heated wire related to Respiratory gas
fluid flow flow
Venturi Bernoulli’s principle gives a pressure
differential flow expression Blood flow in heart-
Turbine Rotational speed of turbine blade lung machines
related to fluid flow rate Dialysate flow in
Electromagnetic For ionic liquids moving in a artificial kidney
magnetic field, EMF generated Blood flow arteries
proportional to the flow rate

5. FORCE
Strain gauge Displacement transducer combined Foot pressure
with a spring device

LVDT Displacement transducer combined Grip force

with a spring device
TRANSDUCERS
Application of Transducers
Type Principle of operation Application
6. PRESSURE
Strain gauge Displacement transducer coupled to a Venous blood pressure
resilient diaphragm

LVDT Displacement transducer coupled to a Arterial blood pressure

resilient diaphragm

Piezoresistor Displacement transducer coupled to a Finger contact pressure

resilient diaphragm

7. VIBRATION
Piezoresistor Alternating compression/extension, Hand tremor
generates EMF in synchrony with the
movement

Electromagnetic Voltage induced in a wire linked to the Pulse Transducer

vibrator and placed in a magnetic field,
has same frequency as that of the
vibration
TRANSDUCERS
Application of Transducers
Type Principle of operation Application
8. TEMPERATURE
Thermocouple Peltier effect generates EMF when Skin (contact
temperature difference exists between temperature)
‘hot’ and ‘cool’ junctions of dissimilar
metals

Thermistor Resistance of special materials increase Oral temperature

or decrease with an increase in
temperature

9. HUMIDITY
Resistance Ion mobility change with water Exhaled gas moisture
concentration leads to change in level
conductivity

Deformation hygrometer Mechanical stresses induced in material Hospital environment

on absorption of moisture monitoring
TRANSDUCERS
Application of Transducers
Type Principle of operation Application
10. ILLUMINATION
Photovoltaic cell Charge carrier energy level shift with Colorimeter
illumination leads to generation of EMF

Photoresistive (Light Dependent Charge carrier mobility change induces Photo-plethysmograph

Resistor-LDR) variation in material conductivity

11. CHEMICAL
Glass electrode Selective permeability of glass gives pH measurement
potential difference with differential
hydrogen ion concentration (pH)

Ion-selective electrode In one form, enzyme immobilized on the Serum K+ estimation

electrode gives reaction products which
alter electrical status of the electrode

Chemically active, ion-specific layer of

Thick-film sensors polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or other Na+ estimation
material patterned to carry out multiple
access with a single device
TRANSDUCERS
Application of Transducers
Type Principle of operation Application
12. BIOSENSOR
Enzymatic sensors Enzyme reactions release charged Blood glucose/urea
species which are estimated by estimation
techniques such as conductimetry
amperometry

Whole cell sensor Recombinant forms of whole cells, such Biological oxygen
as E.coli, produce reactants in demand
combination with the measurand to be
further assessed by electrochemical
sensors.
 Capacitive Transducer
“Capacitive type means using capacitance and
transducer means a device that converts variations
in a physical quantity, into an electrical signal”

• Moreover, the capacitive transducer or sensor is

nothing but the capacitor with variable
capacitance
 Working principle
The capacitive transducer comprises of two parallel metal plates that are separated
by the material such as air, which is called as the dielectric material. In the
typical capacitor the distance between the two plates is fixed, but in variable
capacitance transducers the distance between the two plates is variable.
The capacitance C between the two plates of capacitive transducers is
given by:

C= (ε0 x εr xA)/ d
Where,
C - The variable capacitance transducer
ε0 - absolute permittivity
εr - relative permittivity
The product of ε0 & εr is also called as the dielectric constant of the
capacitive transducer.
A - area of the plates
D - distance between the plates
 Parameters for Capacitive
Transducers
 Changing Area of the Plates of Capacitive Transducers

Changing Distance between the Plates of Capacitive

Transducers

Changing Dielectric Constant type of Capacitive

Transducers
 Application of capacitive transducer

Capacitive type transducers has wide range of applications in

which s0me of them are:

 In Microphones

 In Semiconductor Industries

 In Detecting Dynamic Motion

 In Microphones
An increase of distance between the parallel plates will
decrease the capacitance value correspondingly.
This transducer is used to convert the value of displacement
or change in pressure in terms of frequency.
• As shown in the figure , A capacitive transducer has a static plate and a deflected flexible
diaphragm with a dielectric in between. When a force is exerted to the outer side of the
diaphragm the distance between the diaphragm and the static plate changes. This produces
a capacitance which is measured using an alternating current bridge or a tank circuit.

• A tank circuit is more preferred because it produces a change in frequency according to

the change in capacitance. This value of frequency will be corresponding to the
displacement or force given to the input.
Semiconductor industry

Capacitive sensors are used for the precise

positioning of semiconductor down to nanometer
level for exposure in different electrical and
electronic circuits.
Detecting Dynamic Motion

Capacitive transducers are ideal for the

measurement of dynamics of a continuously
moving target such as rotating spindles or
vibrating element like in disc drive spindles.
• Liquid level measurement by changing the
capacitance between two conductive plates.
• Capacitors are common force sensors.
• Commonly used for Thickness measurement in a
noncontact fashion.
 Advantages
High sensitivity
Can detect upto 10^-14 m displacements
Low power requirement
High resolution
Low cost
Easy to integrate into ICs
 Disadvantages
Performance is severely effected by dirt and
other contaminants.
The metallic part must be insulated from each
other.
Affected by temperature and humidity
Sensitivity to noise
Difficulties in designing
Non-linearity
STRAIN GAUGE

PRESENTATION BY:
Dr Srinivasan S Balapangu
 CONTENTS

• Definition
• History
• Working
• Characteristics
• Types
• Advantages
• Disadvantages
• Application
 DEFINITION

• A strain gauge is an example of passive transducer that converts a mechanical

displacement into a change of resistance.
• A strain gauge is a thin, wafer-like device that can be attached to a variety of
materials to measure applied strain.
 HISTORY

A brief history of the Strain Gauge:

• 1856 : Lord Kelvin first reported on a relationship between strain and the resistance
of wire conductors.
• Early 1930s : Charles Kearns made the first notable use of bonded resistance strain
gauges to measure vibratory strains in high performance propeller blades.
• 1937/8 : Arthur Ruge discovered that small diameter wires made of electrical
resistance alloys could be bonded to a structure to measure surface strain.
• 1952 : At this time, printed circuits were emerging, and Saunders-Roe developed the
idea of making a strain gauge by etching the pattern for the gauge from a thin foil.
 STRUCTURE

• The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a wide choice of shapes and
sizes to suit a variety of applications. They consist of a pattern of resistive foil which
is mounted on a backing material.
• They operate on the principle that as the foil is subjected to stress, the resistance of
the foil changes in a defined way.
 WORKING

• The strain gauge is connected into a Wheatstone Bridge circuit. The change in
resistance is proportional to applied strain and is measured with Wheatstone bridge.
 WORKING

• The sensitivity of a strain gauge is described in terms of a characteristic called the

gauge factor, defined as unit change in resistance per unit change in length, or

• Gauge factor is related to Poisson's ratio µ by,

K=1+2 µ
 GAUGE FACTOR
The gauge factor is defined as the unit change in resistance per unit change in length.
It is denoted as G or S. It is also called sensitivity of the strain gauge.

Gauge factor Gf =

Where ∆R = Corresponding change in resistance R

∆L = Change in length per unit length.

The resistance of the wire of strain gauge R is given by:

R=
Where ρ = resistivity of the material of wire
L = length of the wire
A= cross sectional Area of the wire, Kd2 , K is constant and D is the diameter.

As earlier stated when the wire is strained its length increases and the lateral dimension
is reduced as a function of poisson’s ratio (µ); consequently there is an increase in
resistance
 R=

Differentiating it, we get

dR =
= [

= + +2

Now passion ration, µ =

= - µ x dL / L
For small variation the above relationship can be written as:

= + +2µ

Gauge factor Gf =

= Gf = Gf x e

Where e =

The gauge factor can be written as

Gf = 1 + 2µ+
 Example
• A 20-mm length of wire is used as a strain gauge exhibits a resistance of
150 Ω. When a force is applied in tension, the resistance changes by 2 Ω
and the length changes by 0.07mm. Find the Gauge Factor.

Solution:
GF =
GF =
GF = 3.71
 TYPES

Based on principle of working :

• Mechanical
• Electrical
• Piezoelectric

Based on mounting :
• Bonded strain gauge
• Unbonded strain gauge
 TYPES

Based on construction :
• Foil strain gauge
• Semiconductor strain gauge
• Photoelectric Strain gauge
 MECHANICAL STRAIN GAUGE

• It is made up of two separate plastic layers. The bottom layer has a ruled scale on it
and the top layer has a red arrow or pointer. One layer is glued to one side of the
crack and one layer to the other. As the crack opens, the layers slide very slowly past
one another and the pointer moves over the scale. The red crosshairs move on the
scale as the crack widens.
 ELECTRICAL STRAIN GAUGE

• When an electrical wire is

stretched within the limits of
its elasticity such that it does
not break or permanently
deform, it will become
narrower and longer, changes
that increase its electrical
resistance end-to-end.
• Strain can be inferred by
measuring change in
resistance.
 PIEZOELECTRIC STRAIN GAUGE

• Piezoelectric generate electric voltage when strain is applied

over it. Strain can be calculated from voltage. Piezoelectric
strain gauges are the most sensitive and reliable devices.
 BONDED STRAIN GAUGE

• A bonded strain-gage element, consisting of a metallic wire,

etched foil, vacuum-deposited film, or semiconductor bar, is
cemented to the strained surface.
 UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE

• The unbonded strain gage consists of a wire stretched

between two points in an insulating medium such as air. One
end of the wire is fixed and the other end is attached to a
movable element.
 FOIL STRAIN GAUGE

• The foil strain gage has metal foil photo-etched in a grid pattern on the electric
insulator of the thin resin and gage leads attached,
 SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE

• For measurements of small strain, semiconductor strain gauges, so called

piezoresistors, are often preferred over foil gauges. Semiconductor strain gauges
depend on the piezoresistive effects of silicon or germanium and measure the change
in resistance with stress as opposed to strain.
 PHOTOELECTRIC STRAIN GAUGE

• The photoelectric gauge uses a light beam, two fine gratings, and a photocell detector
to generate an electrical current that is proportional to strain. The gage length of
these devices can be as short as 1/16 inch, but they are costly and delicate.
 STRAIN GAUGE

STRAIN GAUGE SELECTION CRITERIA:

• Gauge Length
• Number of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
• Arrangement of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
• Grid Resistance
• temperature sensitivity
• Carrier Material
• Gauge Width
• Availability
• low cost
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

Advantages
• There is no moving part.
• It is small and inexpensive.

Disadvantages
• It is non-linear.
• It needs to be calibrated.
 APPLICATIONS

• Residual stress
• Vibration measurement
• Torque measurement
• Bending and deflection measurement
• Compression and tension measurement
• Strain measurement
Wheatstone Bridge
• A Wheatstone Bridge is an electrical circuit used for precisely
measuring resistance. It consists of four resistors arranged in series
along two parallel arms bridged by an ammeter or voltmeter.
 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
• The current flowing in the R1 /
R3 branch is equal to the current
flowing in the R2 / R4 branch
because all resistors are equal in
their resistance values.

• There is no voltage difference

between points A and B potential
difference between the midpoints
will be zero.

• For a bridge to be “balanced”

(no output voltage, Vout = 0)
 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

• A change in resistance (Ω) in one

of the resistors will result in a
measurable current that flows
through the ammeter.

• This bridge circuit is now

“unbalanced”

• This imbalance causes the

ammeter to register a voltage,
indicating a change in resistance.
Calculation….
Change In Resistance(ΔR)
• Using the gauge factor and the strain, you can calculate how much the
resistance of a strain gauge changes when a strain is applied.
Calculation….
Strain (ϵ):

• Where ΔL is the change in length and L is the original length. This

equation defines strain as the relative change in length of the material
being measured.
Calculation….
Strain Gauge Factor (GF):

Where ΔR is the change in resistance, R is the original resistance, and ϵ is

the strain (change in length divided by original length. The Gauge Factor
relates the change in resistance of the strain gauge to the mechanical
strain applied.
Calculation….
Wheatstone Bridge Output Voltage (Vout):

This equation calculates the voltage difference across the bridge, which is
used to determine the strain based on changes in resistance.
Calculation….
Wheatstone Bridge Output Voltage (Vout):
 Example
• A Wheatstone bridge is excited by a 12-V DC source and contains the
following resistances: R1= 1.2k Ω, R2 =3kΩ, R3=2.2kΩ and R4=5kΩ. Find
the output voltage, E0

Solution
Eo = E()

Eo = 12()

Eo = 12()

Eo = 0.24V
THANK YOU