EE 3403 MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

CONTENTS
UNIT I CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENTS

UNIT II MEASUREMENT OF PARAMETERS IN

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

UNIT III AC/DC BRIDGES AND INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIERS

UNIT IV TRANSDUCERS FOR MEASUREMENT OF

NON- ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS

UNIT V DIGITAL INSTRUMENTATION

• UNIT I CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENTS 9
Instruments: classification, applications – Elements of a generalized
measurement system - Static and dynamic characteristics - Errors in
measurement -Statistical evaluation of measurement data.
• UNIT II MEASUREMENT OF PARAMETERS IN ELECTRICAL
SYSTEMS 9
Classification of instruments – moving coil and moving iron meters –
Induction type, dynamometer type watt meters – Energy meter – Megger –
Instrument transformers (CT & PT).
• UNIT III AC/DC BRIDGES AND INSTRUMENTATION
AMPLIFIERS 9
Wheatstone bridge, Kelvin double bridge - Maxwell, Hay, Wien and
Schering bridges – Errors and compensation in A.C. bridges -
Instrumentation Amplifiers.
• UNIT IV TRANSDUCERS FOR MEASUREMENT OF NON-
ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS 9
Classification of transducers – Measurement of pressure, temperature,
displacement, flow, angular velocity – Digital transducers – Smart Sensors.
• UNIT V DIGITAL INSTRUMENTATION 9
A/D converters: types and characteristics – Sampling, Errors- Measurement
of voltage, Current, frequency and phase - D/A converters: types and
characteristics- DSO- Data Loggers – Basics of PLC programming and
Introduction to Virtual Instrumentation - Instrument standards
 Course objectives
• To educate the fundamental concepts and characteristics of
measurement and errors
• To impart the knowledge on the functional aspects of measuring
instruments
• To infer the importance of various bridge circuits used with
measuring instruments.
• To educate the fundamental working of sensors and transducers and
their applications
• To summarize the overall measurement and instrumentation with the
knowledge on digital instrumentation principles.
 Course Outcomes
Upon successful completion of the course, the students should have
the
• CO1: Ability to understand the fundamental art of measurement in
engineering.
• CO2: Ability to understand the structural elements of various
instruments.
• CO3: Ability to understand the importance of bridge circuits.
• CO4: Ability to understand about various transducers and their
characteristics by experiments.
• CO5: Ability to understand the concept of digital instrumentation
and virtual instrumentation by experiments.
TEXT BOOKS
1. A.K. Sawhney, Puneet Sawhney ‘A Course in Electrical & Electronic
Measurements & Instrumentation’, Dhanpat Rai and Co, New Delhi, Edition
2011.
2. H.S. Kalsi, ‘Electronic Instrumentation’, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2010.
REFERENCES
1. M.M.S. Anand, ‘Electronics Instruments and Instrumentation Technology’,
Prentice Hall India, New Delhi, 2009 85
2. J.J. Carr, ‘Elements of Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement’,
Pearson Education India, New Delhi, 2011.
3. W.Bolton, Programmable Logic Controllers, 6th Edition, Elseiver, 2015.
4. R.B. Northrop, ‘Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurements’, Taylor
& Francis, New Delhi, 3 rd Edition 2014.
5. E. O. Doebelin and D. N. Manik, “Measurement Systems – Application and
Design”, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 6th Edition 2017.
6. R. K. Rajput, “Electrical and Electronics Measurements and
Instrumentation”, Chand Pub, 2016.
 UNIT I- CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENTS

Instruments: classification, applications

Elements of a generalized measurement system
Static and dynamic characteristics
Errors in measurement
Statistical evaluation of measurement data.
 INSTRUMENTS: CLASSIFICATION,
APPLICATIONS
• An instrument may be defined as a device for determining the value
or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
•The instruments may be classified as follows:

i) Mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments

ii) Absolute and secondary instruments

iii) Manual and automatic instruments

iv) Analogue and digital instruments

v) Self operated and power operated instruments

vii) Self contained and remote indicating instruments

 Classification of Instruments
Mechanical, Analog and
Electrical Digital
and
Electronic Instrument
instruments s
Self operated
and power
operated
instruments
Manual and Absolute and
automatic secondary
instruments instruments
 MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

• They are mechanical in construction and are suitable

for measurements of static and stable quantities like
force, pressure etc.
• Adv: Mechanical instruments are
• simple in design and application.
• They are more durable and relatively cheaper.
• No external power source is required for the
operation of mechanical instruments.
• They are quite reliable and accurate for
measurements under stable conditions.
 MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS
Limitations:
 Unable to respond rapidly to measurements of
dynamic and transient conditions.
 Have several moving parts that are rigid, heavy
and bulky and consequently have a large mass.
 The mass presents inertia problems and hence these
instruments cannot follow the rapid changes which
are involved in dynamic measurements.
 Most of them are a potential source of noise and
cause pollution of silence.
PRESSURE GAUGE
 ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS

•An electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical

pointer movement as an indicating device.
•Faster than the respective mechanical methods.

•Limitations: Some of the galvanometers can follow 50 Hz

variations, but as per present day requirements of fast
measurements these are also considered to be slow.
 ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS

• Adv: These instruments consume less power and hence

cause lesser load on the system.
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
• Electronic Instruments uses semiconductor devices
which have excellent time response and they work
without any noise or pollution.

• Adv: They are more portable in the sense that :

They can be moved around easily . They can be
used in a variety of power supply all over the
world .
 MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC
INSTRUMENTS
• Manual require the services of an operator, where as in
automatic instruments the operator is not required.
• For example,
• Measurement of rotational speed by a hand operated
tachometer an operator is required to make the contact of
the instrument with the rotating shaft.
• For measurement of temperature by a resistance
thermometer by Wheat stone bridge in its circuit an operator
is required to indicate the temperature being measured.
• Where as, in measurement of temperature by mercury-in-
glass thermometer, no operator is required.
SELF OPERATED AND POWER OPERATED INSTRUMENTS

•A self operated instrument does not require any

external power source for its operation.
•In such instruments the output energy is supplied by
the input signal e.g. a dial indicator or mercury-in-
glass type thermometer.
•In power operated instruments some auxiliary
power source is required for its operation. This
external power source could be electricity,
compressed air etc.
• In such cases the input signal supplies only the
insignificant portion of the output power e.g. an
electro-mechanical measurement system.
Self Contained and Remote Indicating Instruments

• A self contained instrument has all the physical

elements in one assembly e.g. an analog ammeter or
a mercury-in-glass thermometer etc.
• Whereas, in a remote indicating instrument has
primary sensory element and the secondary
indicating element are located at two different
locations linked by transmitting element. These
locations could be long distance apart.
•In modern instrumentation technology such type of
arrangement is quite necessary and vogue.
ELEMENTS OF A GENERALIZED
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Data storage
playback
Measuring Element
Quantity

Primary Variable Variable Data Data

Sensing Conversio Manipulatio Transmissio Presentatio
Element n Element n Element n Element n Element

Data Conditioning Elements To Observer

EXAMPLES OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

BLOCK SCHEMATIC OF A AMMETER

BLOCK SCHEMATIC OF A GALVANOMETER

MOVING COIL AMMETER
 ELEMENTS OF A GENERALIZED
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
Primary Sensing Element: Quantity under measurement makes its first contact with
primary sensing element – Transducer converts measured quantity in to analogous electrical
signal
Variable Conversion Element: The output from primary sensing element will be electrical
signal in the form of voltage, frequency or other electrical parameter – converting this signal
into either analog or digital signal using appropriate converter.
Variable Manipulation Element: manipulates the signal presented to it by preserving the
original nature of the signal. Manipulation means change in numerical value of the signal –
Example: Amplifier
Data Transmission element: This manipulated value is sent through the data transmission
element.
Data Presentation Element: The information about the quantity under measurement has to
be conveyed to system for control or analysis. Output or data of the system can be monitored

by using visual display devices

 TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
Three types of measurement:
1. Primary measurement : The sought value of a parameter is determined by
comparing it directly with reference standards – measuring line length
with a scale
2. Secondary measurement: Involves one conversion since the measured
quantity is not observable – measuring fluid temperature
3. Tertiary measurement: Involves two conversion before the measured
quantity is visible
LVDT
 Primary measurements
In the primary measurement, the value of the physical
parameter is determined by comparing it directly with
the reference standards. The required information is
obtainable through senses of sight and touch. Primary
measurements provide subjective information only.
e.g.
1. Matching of two lengths when determining the
length of an object with a ruler.
2. Matching the two colors when judging the
temperature of red hot steel.
3. Measurement of time by counting the number of
strokes of a clock etc.
 Secondary and Tertiary measurements

• An indirect method may consist of developing an

electrical voltage proportional to a physical variable
to be measured, measuring that voltage and then
converting the measured voltage back to the
corresponding value of the original measurand.
• Electrical methods are preferred in the indirect
methods due to their high speed of operation and
simple processing of the measured variable.
 STATIC AND DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS
Static characteristics are those that must be considered when the system or
instrument is used to condition not varying with time or vary only quite
slowly.

Dynamic characteristics of an instrument refers to performance of

instrument when it is subjected to time varying input. The performance
criteria based upon the dynamic relation constitute the dynamic
characteristics.
LIST OF STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
1. Accuracy
2. Precision
3. Sensitivity
4. Resolution
5. Static error
6. Range
7. Span
8. Reproducibility
9. Drift
10. Dead zone
11. True value
SPECIFICS ON MAIN STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Accuracy: The closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true
value of the quantity being measured.
Precision: Measure of consistency or repeatability of a series of successive
measurements
Sensitivity: The ability to feel or realize readily and accurately the slight changes
in the input quantity.
Resolution: It is the smallest change in measured quantity that will produce a
deductible change in instrument reading
Static error: The difference between the measured value and true value of the
quantity. Static Error = Am – Ar
Am = Measured value of quantity
A r = true value of quantity
Range: An instrument range describes the limits of magnitude over which a
quantity may be measured ( 1 – 10mA). Range - is minimum value to maximum
value
Span: The Instrument span is algebraic difference between the upper to lower
limits ( - 10mA to + 10mA).
Here is an example:
The range could be -10 PSI to +20 PSI. That is a span of 30 PSI.
 Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy measures the degree of correctness

whereas precision measures degree of exactness.
 Repeatability Vs Reproducibility
• Repeatability is the closeness of measured values between
repeated measurements of the same thing, carried out at the
same conditions as follows.
1.At the same place
2.By the same person
3.By the same Method
4.On the same equipment
5.Over short period of time.
•In simple words, Repeatability is variation in readings when the
same person measures the same part many times using the same
equipment and method under the same conditions.
•Example
•If a person measures repeated readings of an object by micrometer
as 15.01 mm, 15.02 mm, and 15.01 mm. means the person can
repeat the readings, and the level of competence is high.
 Repeatability Vs Reproducibility
Reproducibility
Reproducibility is the closeness of measured values between measurements of the same
thing carried out in different conditions as follows
1. At the different place
2. By the different person
3. By the different method
4. On the different equipment
5. At the different time
In simple words, Reproducibility is the variation in readings when a different person
6.
measures the same part (or quantity) many times, using the same equipment (or different
equipment), under the same conditions (or different Conditions).
Example
If three different person measures reading of the same object by micrometer as 15.54
7.
mm,15.64 mm,15.49 mm, then the reproducibility of this measurement is 0.15 mm.
 Contd

Reproducibility: The degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured. It may be specified in turns of units for a given period of time.
Drift : Means that with given input the measured value do not vary with time. It can
classified into Zero, Span or Sensitive and Zonal Drift.
Zero drift:
If entire calibration shifts due to
slippage permanent or due to
Undue warming up of electronic
tube circuits zero drift occurs
as shown in fig .
Span (or) Sensitivity drift: If Zonal drift: If the drift occurs
there is proportional change only over a portion of span over
in the indication all along the a portion of instrument, it is
upward scale, the drift is called as zonal drift as shown in
called span on sensitivity fig
drift as shown in fig

Causes for Drift: Depending on the • Environment Changes

instrument, there are a variety of • Vibrations
factors that can cause drift. • Normal Wear and Tear
• Time • Improper use.
• Sudden Shock
Dead zone: Defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is
no output for the system.
True value: Value of a quantity to be measured is defined as the average of an
infinite number of measured values when the average deviation to the various
contributing factors tends to zero.
 SPECIFICS ON MAIN DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

As the input varies from instant to instant , output also varies from
instant to instant. The behavior of the system under such conditions is
called dynamic response.
 DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR
Dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by applying some form of known and
predetermined input to its primary element and study the output – The behavior is judged
for three types of input as shown in figure

Step change: Input is changed suddenly to

finite value and remains constant
Linear change: Input changes linearly with
respect to time
Sinusoidal Change: Magnitude of input
changes in accordance with sinusoidal
function of constant amplitude
 LIST OF DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS?
1. Speed of response
2. Measuring lag
3. Fidelity
4. Dynamic error

Speed of response
It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to
changes in the measured quantity.

Measuring lag
It refers to retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to change in
the input signal. The measurement lags are of two types
Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system
indicates changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic
error.
Dynamic error: Is difference between the true value of the quantity
changing with the time and the value indicated by the instrument if
no static error is assumed.
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
There is always some difference between the actual value and

observed value is called error.

Errors are mainly classified as

1. Gross errors

2. Systematic errors

3. Random errors
 ERRORS

Gross errors: Are largely due to human mistakes in

reading instruments and recording and calculating
measurement results.
This error can be eliminated by
1. Great care should be taken in reading and recording
the data.
2. Taking number of readings of same quantity and by

number of observers.
 ERRORS CONTD

2. Systematic errors:
They are classified as
a. Instrumental errors
b. Environmental errors
c. Observational errors
Instrumental errors: Errors due following reasons:
a. Due to inherent short comings in instrument
b. Due to misuse of the instruments
c. Due to loading effects
 ERRORS- INSTRUMENT - INHERENT
SHORT COMINGS
These errors are inherent in instruments because of their
Instrument Mechanical Structure causes inherent short comings and
are follows:
• Construction
• Calibration / Operation of instrument / measuring
devices
Example:
The spring used for producing controlling torque of permanent
magnet instrument become weak, the instrument will read high.
Others Errors: Misuse of instruments, Due to loading effects.
Elimination process: Careful planning and recalibration.
 ENVIRONMENTAL ERRORS
Environmental errors emerge due to usage of an instrument in different
conditions other than for which it is assembled and calibrated.
1. Temperature
2. Pressure
3. Humidity
4. Dust
5. Vibration
Elimination of Environmental Errors:
a. Usage of instrument under temperature / pressure
controlled conditions
b. Deviation in local environmental errors be determined and
suitable correction to instrumental readings applied.
c. Automatic compensation employing devices
d. New calibration made in the changed conditions.
 OBSERVATIONAL ERRORS
Observational errors: Occur due to improper observation made by the
observer.

Example:
The pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of scale.
An error on account of parallax will be incurred unless the line vision of
the observer is exactly above the pointer.
Elimination of Observational Error
To minimize parallax errors , highly accurate meters are provided with
mirrored scales.
 RANDOM AND LIMITING
ERRORS

Random or Residual errors : The happenings or disturbances

about which we are unaware are lumped together are called as “
random or residual errors”
Why the name residual errors:
Since theses errors remain after the system errors have been
taken care of , we call these errors as residual errors.
 STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF DATA MEASUREMENTTHE
EXPERIMENTAL DATA IS OBTAINED IN TWO FORMS OF TEST

1.Multisample test
2.Single sample test
Multisample test
In this test , repeated measurement of a given quantity are done
using different test conditions such as employing different ways
of measurement and by employing different observation.
Simply making measurements with the same equipment ,
procedure and technique and same observer does not provide
multisample test.
Single sample test
A single measurement done under specific condition is known
as single sample test.
 STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF DATA
MEASUREMENT
To obtain the probable true value of the measured quantity.

Methods to estimate probable value of a measured value:

1. Arithmetic mean
2. Median
3. Mode
4. Deviation from the mean
5. Average deviation
6. Standard deviation
7. Variance
 ARITHMETIC MEAN, MEDIAN AND MODE
Arithmetic mean is given by the following expression

X = X1+X2+X3+…….+Xn = ЄX
n n

Where X = Arithmetic mean

X1,X2,X3…. = Readings taken
n = number of readings

Median: The middle value of set of arranged in ascending and descending

order of magnitude.

Mode: is the value which occurs frequently in a set of observations and

around which other readings of the set cluster densely.
 MEAN - DEVIATION
Mean Deviation is departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean
Example:
If the deviation of first reading X1 is called d1 , second reading X2 is
called as d2 etc, then mean deviations is expressed as,
1. d1 = X1 – X
2. d2 = X2 – X , etc.
Mean deviation may be positive or negative.
Sum of the deviation is zero.
Average deviation is as the sum of the absolute values of the deviation
D = |d1| +|d2|+|d3|+…|dn|
n
 STANDARD DEVIATION
Standard Deviation or Root Mean Square Deviation: For inifite
number of reading / data, the square root of the sum of all the
individual deviation squared ,divided by number of readings.
Expressed as σ = √d1² + d2²+d3²+….+dn²
n

(Standard deviation for a finite number of data the denominator in ( n-

1))

Variance : Is the mean of square deviation ,which is same as standard

deviation, except that square root is not extracted .
V = d1² + d2²+d3²+….+dn²
n
 LIMITING ERRORS
Limiting Error: Limiting of deviations from marked values are known as
limiting errors or guarantee errors
Fractional or relative limiting error: Ratio of error to the specified
(nominal) magnitude of a quantity is called fractional error.
Єr = δA = Aa – As (or) δA = Єr As
As As
Actual value of the quantity , Aa = As + δA
= As + Єr As
= As (1 ± Єr )
Percentage limiting error % Єr = Єr x 100
Where Aa = Actual error
As = specified value
δA = limiting error
 PROBLEMS
Problem 1
Two resistors having the following ratings: R1= 36Ω ± 5% and
R2 =75Ω± 5%. Calculate the limiting error when the resistors
are connected in series and connected in parallel.
Solution:
R1= 36Ω ± 5%
Rl = 36Ω+1.8 (max) and Rl = 36Ω-1.8 (min)
Limits of R1 are 37.8Ω and 34.2Ω
Limits of R2 are 78.75Ω and 71.25Ω
Series connection:
R = R1 + R2 = 37.8 +78.75 = 116.55(max)
or
 PROBLEMS - CONTD

Parallel connection :
R = R1R2 / (R1 + R2) = 78.75 x 37.8 / (78.75 + 37.8)
= 25.54Ω
Rated value of parallel resistors = 75x36 /(75+36)
= 24.32Ω
Limiting error = 25.54 -24.32 = 1.22Ω
 Problems - contd

Problem 2: A 0 – 10Amp ammeter has guaranteed accuracy of 1.5% of full-scale

reading. The current measured by the instrument is 2.5 A. calculate the limiting values
of current and the percentage limiting error.
Solution:
Full scale reading = 10A
Limiting error Єr = 1.5% of full scale reading
Specified value As = 2.5 A
Magnitude of limiting error of ammeter is δA=1.5x10/100 =0.15A
Relative error, Єr = δA = 0.15 = 0.06
As 2.5
Limiting value of current = As (1 ± Єr ) = 2.5(1 ± 0.06) =2.5±0.15A
Percentage limiting error % Єr = Єr x 100 =0.06x100 = 6%
 WHAT IS INSTRUMENT
CALIBRATION?

Calibration is essentially the comparison, under specified conditions,

with a higher standard, which is traceable to a national or international

standard, or an acceptable alternative

 INSTRUMENTS CALIBRATION
Definition: Calibration is comparison of an instrument with a primary
or secondary standard of an instrument of known accuracy.

Classification of Calibration Procedure:

1. Primary calibration
2. Secondary calibration
3. Direct calibration
4. Indirect calibration
5. Routine Calibration
 Calibration Procedure

Primary calibration: An instrument calibrated against primary

standards (after calibration, that instrument is referred as secondary
calibration) .
Examples: Standard resistor
Meter
Primary Standard
Secondary calibration: An instrument used for calibrating another
instrument of lesser accuracy. Used for laboratory / industry practice
Example: Standard cell may be used for calibrating a voltmeter or
ammeter with a suitable circuit.
Test Meter
Secondary Standard
Direct calibration: Known as input source is same order of accuracy
as primary calibration.
Example: Flow meter Voltage
Voltmeter
Standard
 CALIBRATION PROCEDURE - CONTD
Indirect calibration: Equivalence of two different instruments used for
METER 1
measurement of certain physical quantity.
Source
Example: Calibration of flow meters METER 2
Routine Calibration: Periodically checking the accuracy and proper
functioning of instrument with standards.
Steps for Calibration:
1. Visual inspection of physical defects in the instrument.
2. Checking the instrument for proper installation in accordance to
manufacturer specifications.
3. Zero setting of all the indicators.
4. Leveling of instruments
5. Recommended operation tests to detect major defects.
 DEFINITION OF STANDARDS
A standard is defined as “something that is set up and established by an
authority as rule of the measure of quantity, weight, extent, value or quality”

For example, a meter is a standard established by an international organization

for
measurement of length. Industry, commerce, international trade in modern
civilization would be impossible without a good system of standards.
 ROLE OF STANDARDS
The role of standards is to achieve uniform, consistent and repeatable
measurements throughout the world. Today our entire industrial economy is based
on the interchangeability of parts the method of manufacture. To achieve this, a
measuring system adequate to define the features to the accuracy required & the
standards of sufficient accuracy to support the measuring system are necessary
 STANDARDS
In practice, the accurate measurement must be made
by comparison with a standard of known dimension
and such a standard is called “Primary Standard”
The first accurate standard was made in England and
was known as “Imperial Standard yard” which was
followed by International Prototype meter” made in
France. Since these two standards of length were
made of metal alloys they are called ‘material length
standards’.
 INTERNATIONAL PROTOTYPE METER:
It is defined as the straight line distance, at 0 oC, between the
engraved lines of pure platinum-iridium alloy (90% platinum &
10% iridium) of 1020 mm total length and having a ‘tresca’
cross section. The graduations are on the upper surface of the
web which coincides with the neutral axis of the section.
Based upon the accuracy required, the standards
are subdivided into four grades namely;

1. Primary Standards
2. Secondary standards
3. Teritiary standards
4. Working standards
 SECONDARY STANDARDS
These are close copies of primary standards w.r.t design,
material & length. Any error existing in these standards is
recorded by comparison with primary standards after long
intervals. They are kept at a number of places under great
supervision and serve as reference for tertiary standards.
This also acts as safeguard against the loss or destruction of
primary standards.
 TERITIARY STANDARDS:
The primary or secondary standards exist as the ultimate controls
for reference at rare intervals.
Tertiary standards are the reference standards employed by
National Physical laboratory (N.P.L) and are the first standards to
be used for reference in laboratories & workshops.
They are made as close copies of secondary standards & are kept
as reference for comparison with working standards.
Working standards:
These standards are similar in design to primary, secondary &
tertiary standards.
But being less in cost and are made of low grade materials, they
are used for general
applications in metrology laboratories.

Sometimes, standards are also classified as

• Reference standards (used as reference purposes)
• Calibration standards (used for calibration of inspection &
working standards)
• Inspection standards (used by inspectors)
• Working standards (used by operators)