THE COMPLEXITY

OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Edrolo Ch 2
TOPICS
2A – Nature vs nurture
2B – The biopsychosocial model
2C – Psychological development across
the lifespan
2D – Critical and sensitive periods
 3

INSTRUCTIONS
Use class time to write down notes, you
may need to finish some at home.
• Key information on the powerpoint is
underlined.
• There are slides that indicate a new
topic/sub-heading.
• You also have a booklet with activities,
questions and designated spaces to
summarise key information.
2A – NATURE VS
NURTURE
Think of something you can do Think of something you can do
now but you couldn’t do when now but you couldn’t do when
you were an toddler. you were in primary school.

Try to name the FOUR most

important developmental
changes since you were born
with the person next to you.
DEFINING DEVELOPMENT
• Psychological development: an individuals changes across
multiple domains (including emotional, cognitive & social).
• Psychologists who study development aim to understand,
describe and predict the many ways in which our thoughts,
feelings & behaviour change throughout our lives.
• A change must be relatively permanent to be
considered a developmental change.
• Eg: learning to speak is a developmental change.
• Eg: short term loss of memory after an injury is
NOT a developmental change.
• There are different aspects of psychological
development. See table on the next slide for
summary.
PSYCHOLOGICAL 7

DEVELOPMENT
Aspect Definition Example

Cognitive The changes in thought Learning a second

developmen processes that occur as we language. Or
t age, including being able to understanding that
think in more abstract and others have a
sophisticated ways. different point of view
to you.
Emotional Lifelong changes in skills that Being able to
developmen allow individuals to control, recognise and name
t express, and recognise your own emotions.
emotions in an appropriate
way.

Social Lifelong changes in skills that Being able to

developmen allow people to effectively and converse with a range
t appropriately interact with of people – different
others. ages, genders etc
Booklet pg
 8

PSYCHOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
• These aspects of development
are interconnected and
dependent on one another.
• This means that they often do not
develop in isolation and instead
as one develops, the other
aspects often follow.
• For example, one’s emotional
development, such as the ability
to recognise the emotions of
others, may advance their
cognitive development by
positioning them in situations
where complex problem-solving
skills are required.
NATURE (HEREDITY) AND
NURTURE (ENVIRONMENT)
• Generally, the various factors influencing
development of our psychological characteristics
can be classified into one of two broad areas —
heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
• Heredity involves the transmission of
characteristics from biological parents to
their offspring via genes at the time of
conception.
• It is well established that the genes we inherit
from our parents influence many aspects of
our physical development; for example, our
blood type, eye and hair colour.
HEREDITY/NATURE
• Our genes also influence less obvious
aspects of our physical development, such
as the rate at which our brain and nervous
system will grow, our brain’s chemistry,
and when certain hormones will be
produced.
• Given the important roles our brain,
nervous system and hormones play in our
thoughts, feelings and behaviour, it is
evident that our genes also influence our
psychological development.
• For example, it is clear that psychological
characteristics such as intelligence and
ENVIRONMENT/NURTURE
• Environmental factors also play an important
role in shaping psychological development.
• In psychology, the term environment is used
to refer to all the experiences, objects and
events to which we are exposed
throughout our entire lifetime.
• Environmental factors that influence
psychological development include; whether
you have brothers and sisters, how you are
brought up, your friendship groups, schooling,
occupation, income level, whether you have a
partner, your religion, whether you experience
a major stressful life event, serious illnesses,
etc.
• The influence of some of these factors is less
 NATURE VS. NURTURE 12

• For many years psychologists debated whether it was

heredity or environment that determined how we
developed (the nature vs. nurture debate).
• Over time, research evidence has consistently shown
that both hereditary and environmental factors interact
to shape human development.
• Psychologists now focus on trying to understand how
hereditary and environmental factors combine or
interact in influencing our thoughts, feelings and
behaviour.
• Psychologists are in general agreement that our
individual development begins with the genetic
instructions we inherit at conception and that
these instructions provide the ‘blueprint’, for the
development of our psychological characteristics.
• The environment interacts with our inherited
potential to determine how the genetic plan
unfolds.
NATURE
VS.
NURTURE
• Almost every experience a person has in their life has
the potential to impact in some way on their
psychological development.
• But the experiences that may influence one person’s
development may also have little or no impact on
another person’s development.
• For example, a person who has a ‘genetic
predisposition for depression’ may not actually develop
depression until they experience a stressful life event,
such as the loss of a loved one. Similarly, a person who
loses a loved one and does not have a genetic
predisposition for depression is less likely to develop
depression.
 NATURE VS. NURTURE
14

• It is currently understood that the

impact of nature and nurture on
development is equivalent.
• In addition, despite certain
characteristics or outcomes of
development appearing to be easily
attributed to either hereditary or
environmental factors, it can often be
difficult to distinguish between the
two in terms of their influence.
• Trying to do this poses questions that
cannot be easily answered.
• For example, if two very intelligent
parents give birth to an equally
intelligent child:
• is this because intelligence is
genetically inherited?
• is it because well educated
parents are more likely to
encourage their children to learn
and do well in school?
HOW DO WE INVESTIGATE
PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT?
How do we tell if a characteristic is
more due to nature or nurture?
It is impossible to isolate someone
from all environmental influences.
Two methods involve studying
similarities and differences
between people who share and
do not share genes and
environments.
These research methods are
View video on Twin Studies:

https://www.bbc.com/reel/video/p0b
n70nw
/nature-vs-nurture-how-your-genes-s
hape-who-you-are
Identical twins –
monozygotic – 1 TWIN STUDIES
egg split in 2.
Non-identical Twin studies involve research using
twins – dizygotic identical and/or non-identical twins as
– 2 eggs participants.
fertilised. Studies of monozygotic twins can provide
valuable information to psychologists
because any differences which later
develop between them can be attributed to
differences in their upbringing and
experiences — that is, their environment.
Twin studies have most commonly been
used to conduct research on the
development of personality and
 ADOPTION STUDIES
18

Psychologists also use information

from research with children who
have been adopted, and therefore
have no genetic similarity to their
adopted parents, to learn about the
influence of heredity and
environment on psychological
development.

Similarities between children and

their adoptive parents would
suggest environmental influence is
greater, whereas similarities
between adopted children and their
biological parents would indicate
inherited influence is greater.
 19

TASKS

1. Complete booklet work pg 2-4.

2. Complete Edrolo 2A practice questions – select which
option suits you today.

Easy Medium Challenging

Q1-10 Q7-16 Q10-15 & 18
 2B – THE
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL
MODEL
 THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL
21

• The biopsychosocial model is a

holistic, interdisciplinary framework
for understanding the human
experience in terms of the influence
of biological, psychological, and
social factors.
• It was originally created to have a
more complete understanding of
mental health, but is now applied to
many areas in Psychology.
• This model works to explain how
the interaction of these factors
influence overall health,
wellbeing, and development.
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
• Biological factors are internal
genetic and/ or physiologically
based factors. These factors can be
innate, such as genetic predispositions
passed down from one’s parents, or can
come about later in life, such as through
taking certain medications.
• Examples: Genetic predispositions,
Medications/substances, Nutrition, Sleep,
Diseases and immune system
functioning, Hormones.
Booklet pg
6
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

• Psychological factors are

internal factors pertaining to
an individual’s mental
processes, including their
cognition, affect, thoughts, beliefs,
and attitudes. In essence,
psychological factors are
everything that an individual
experiences within their mind.
• Examples: • Attitudes/beliefs •
Booklet pg
Emotions (affect) • Personality6•
SOCIAL FACTORS
• Social factors are external
factors relating to an individual’s
interactions with others and their
external environment, including their
relationships and community
involvement. This can include close
personal relationships as well as an
individual’s experience within a
greater society.
• Examples: • Interpersonal relationships •
Attachment style • Cultural norms • Booklet pg
Socioeconomic status • Education • Physical
6
 25

THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH TO MENTAL WELLBEING

• As previously mentioned, the

biopsychosocial model can be applied
to mental wellbeing.
• Mental wellbeing refers to an
individual’s current psychological
state, involving their ability to think,
process information, and regulate
emotions.
• An individual may be considered to
have high or low levels of mental
wellbeing depending on their ability to
function day-to-day, have stable
patterns of mood, and their ability to
cope with and overcome the pressures
of life (resilience).
 THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH TO 26
MENTAL WELLBEING

• According to the biopsychosocial

model, mental wellbeing is
influenced by the interaction of
biological, psychological, and
social factors.
• Any one of these factors can
increase or decrease the potential
for an individual to have high
levels of mental wellbeing. Some
considerations to note include:
• Low levels of mental wellbeing can
be improved by addressing a
combination of these factors.
• High levels mental wellbeing
cannot be attained if only one factor
of the biopsychosocial model is
focused on, all need to be
addressed.
THINK OF THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL AS A 27

TABLE AS DEPICTED IN FIGURE 1, IF ONE OF

THE TABLE’S LEGS IS REMOVED, IT CAN NO
LONGER STAND.
28
 29

THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

• An individual’s development is
impacted by the sum of all of the
biopsychosocial influences
encountered within their life.
• These influences can begin to
take effect as early as infancy.
• Often in development, the effect
(either positive or negative) of
one aspect of the biopsychosocial
model, during infancy or early
childhood, can influence the
individual’s positive or negative
experiences later in life.
 30
THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH TO
PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

• However, as with the

biopsychosocial model of
mental wellbeing, there are
many possible factors and
related outcomes for
psychological development.
• One negative
biopsychosocial influence on
its own is not enough to
disrupt development, just as
one positive biopsychosocial
influence on its own is not
enough to cause optimal
psychological development.
 31

Booklet pg
7
 32
THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL APPROACH –
SUMMING UP

• You may notice that the biopsychosocial

factors for psychological development
are similar to those for mental wellbeing.
• This is because your mental wellbeing and
psychological development are integrated into
your overarching sense of self, accompanied
by all other domains that you may consider
integral to your identity and functioning.
• Humans are not comprised of independent
parts, which is why the biopsychosocial
framework is so important in understanding
how you came to be who you are.
 33

TASKS

1. Complete booklet work pg 5-8.

2. Complete Edrolo 2B practice questions – select which
option suits you today.

Easy Medium Challenging

Q1-11 Q12-16 Q16-20
 2C –
PSYCHOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT
ACROSS THE
LIFESPAN
 35

PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFESPAN

• We spend our whole lives evolving,

changing, and adapting, both
physiologically and psychologically.
• This process of development is
unique to each person, but does
follow a general trend across the
lifespan.
• This part of the course will explore
some popular theories that have
been developed in an attempt to
explain the processes of emotional,
cognitive, and social development.
 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 36

• Emotional development refers

to the continuous, lifelong
development of skills that allow
individuals to control, express, and
recognise emotions in an
appropriate way.
• We all experience a range of
emotional reactions in our lives.
• Like all forms of development, the
range of emotions, and our
knowledge of how and when to
express these emotions, becomes
increasingly sophisticated as we
age and develop.
 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT – THEORY OF MIND 37

• Theory of mind refers to an

individual’s ability to
attribute and understand
mental states, beliefs,
experiences, and emotions
of oneself and others.
• During infancy and early
childhood, children have
already begun to develop
skills that will allow theory
of mind to develop later in
life.
 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT – EMOTIONAL 38

INTELLIGENCE
• Upon reaching adulthood,
and achieving a fully
developed theory of mind,
individuals should reach a
state of emotional
intelligence.
• Emotional intelligence
refers to an individual’s
ability to monitor their own
and others’ emotions and
use this information to guide
their thoughts and
behaviours.
ATTACHMENT
• Attachment theory has been closely linked to
emotional development.
• Attachment is a relationship between two people in which
each person feels strongly about the other.
• In infancy attachment refers to the emotional bond which
forms between and infant and their caregiver.
• Infants form attachments with the people most closely
involved with them. e.g. parents, siblings etc.
• Between 6-8 months the infant will form a special attachment
to their main caregiver.
• Generally it has been shown by psychologists
that:
Secure attachment usually leads to ‘healthy’
emotional development.
Insecure attachment is more likely to lead to
‘unhealthy’ emotional development.
JOHN BOWLBY
The concept of attachment was first proposed by
psychiatrist John Bowlby (1960s). He argued that the
infant-caregiver bond was important for two reasons;
1. The bond forms the foundation for healthy
emotional development later in life.
2. The bond has an ‘evolutionary function’ – increases
the chance of infant survival.
Bowlby’s theory states that infants go through an age-
related sequence of attachment stages .
He found that the infant will regard their caregivers as
a ‘secure base’, so that they can explore their
environment but then return to the caregiver for
comfort and safety.
 JOHN BOWLBY
To form a healthy attachment, Bowlby stated that:
1. The caregiver must consistently meet the
needs of the infant, particularly responding
when they are distressed and being able to
anticipate their needs.
2. The caregiver and child must interact in an
enjoyable and playful manner.
If a person develops a ‘healthy attachment’ as a
child, they then develop a sense of trust in
themselves and healthy self esteem.
Bowlby concluded that a child’s early experiences
with their primary caregivers form a working model
which they then apply to their future relationships.
ATTACHMENT
STYLES

There are many

different attachment
styles, however, all
forms generally fall
into two categories:
secure and insecure
attachment.
Fill in table on page 10 of
booklet.
 COMPARING THE TWO
Healthy emotional Unhealthy emotional
development leads to: development leads to:
• High levels of functioning • Being manipulative of
• The ability to trust others others
• Resilience • Craving affection
• Being able to ask for help • Increased anxiety
when needed • Being a ‘people-pleaser’
• High self esteem • Low self-efficacy
• Lower self esteem
 OPTIONAL ACTIVITY: HOW
EMOTIONALLY INTELLIGENT ARE YOU?

Having high emotional intelligence allows

you to manage stress, be resilient, read
how others are feeling and have positive
interactions with others.
You can do a short quiz here:
https://www.ihhp.com/free-eq-quiz/
Or type into google “free emotional intelligence quiz” it should
be the first option to come up.

Or a slightly longer more accurate quiz here:

https://globalleadershipfoundation.com/geit/eitest
.html
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 45

• Our cognitive processes continue to

develop and strengthen throughout our
lifespan.
• Cognitive development refers to the
continuous, lifelong development of the
ability to think, comprehend, and organise
information from the internal and external
environment.
• Cognitive development is a gradual and
life-long process and is somewhat reliant
on biological and physical development.
• For example, one reason that children are
universally unable to speak until they
reach a certain age range is because, in
order to produce and understand speech,
certain neural networks are required.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
As with other areas of psychological development,
cognitive development cannot be directly observed.
Infants and young children who have not yet
developed language skills are unable to report what
they are thinking or explain their actions.
Therefore, much of what psychologists know about
cognitive development, particularly in early infancy,
must be inferred from the overt behaviour the
individual demonstrates.
The ability to think about, understand and organize
information is referred to as cognition.
We develop increasingly complex thought processes
as we age, but we are generally not aware of our
mental abilities changing because they do so very
gradually.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
– JEAN PIAGET
Many psychologists in the early 19th century
viewed babies as having no capacity to develop
their own thoughts.
The changed view of the cognitive capabilities of
infants was mainly initiated as a result of the work
of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, whose
theories were first translated into English in the
1920s.
Since then, researchers have tested and refined
Piaget's theories, and many current views in
cognitive and developmental psychology about
how thinking develops are based on Piaget's
theories.
PIAGET’S
THEORY
• We move through four distinct and sequential
stages from birth to adulthood which consist
of key cognitive accomplishments.
• Each stage is linked to an approximate
chronological age.
• Individuals do not develop the mental
capabilities of a later stage without first
having acquired those of an earlier stage.
• Furthermore, the rate at which each person
proceeds through the stages may vary, but
according to Piaget, everyone proceeds
through these stages in the same order. In
addition, not all individuals will reach stage
four which is the final stage in his theory e.g.
intellectual disabled people.
 PIAGET’S THEORY

• As well as describing a sequential

progression through four stages, Piaget
outlined key cognitive accomplishments
that individuals achieve in each stage.
• He also described the kinds of thinking
typical of each stage.
• According to Piaget, what people know
is not as important as the way in which
they think and how they acquire mental
abilities.
TASKS:
Watch short video on Piaget’s experiments
on cognitive development (6 mins).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TRF27F2
bn-A
1. Watch the Edrolo videos on Piaget’s
Theory (2C Part 2 – 19 mins) pause and
make notes in your book while you
watch. Must have headphones for this
option.
https://edrolo.com.au/s/2451371/
Or
2. Read slide 51-54 and make notes in your
STAGE 1: SENSORIMOTOR STAGE

• Age: Birth - 2 years old.

• Children develop object permanence,
meaning they understand that an object
continues to exist even if it cannot be seen.
• Children will begin to perform goal-
directed behaviour, which involves
engaging in behaviour to meet a goal that
has been purposefully planned.
• For example, an infant might want to play with
a specific toy. When they achieve goal-directed
behaviour, they realise that they can reach out
their hand and grasp the toy in order to
achieve this goal.
STAGE 2: PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE

• Age: 2 - 7 years-old
• At the beginning of this stage, children are
egocentric, meaning that they cannot understand
the perspectives of others.
• In such a way, children may believe that the way in
which they think about the world is exactly the same
as how everyone else does. By the end of this stage,
children should overcome this egocentrism.
• Children overcome centration (only being able to
focus on one feature or characteristic of an object).
• Children learn to understand reversibility (the
knowledge that objects are able to change and then
return to their original form).
• An example of this is playdough, which you can roll out
into a long, thin line and then return it to its original
shape as a round ball.
STAGE 3: CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
Age: 7- 12 years old
Children develop the understanding of
conservation, which is the knowledge that the
properties of an object remain consistent even when
the object’s appearance is altered.
For example, understanding that when water from a tall,
skinny glass is poured into a short, wide glass, the quantity
of water remains the same.
Children develop the skill of classification, which is
the ability to group objects or concepts into
categories which are organised on the basis of
common features.
For example, a child may understand that fruits are sweet,
therefore when tasting a sweet strawberry for the first time,
the child would be able to group it with other fruits on the
basis of this common feature.
STAGE 4: FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE

• Age: 12 years +
• At about the time many young adolescents enter
secondary school, they are usually in Piaget's final
stage of cognitive development — the formal
operational stage.
• Formal operational stage: more complex thought
processes become evident and thinking becomes
increasingly sophisticated.
• Children develop the ability to produce abstract
thought, which involves the consideration of
concepts that are not tangible and therefore require
imagination rather than senses.
• For example, the concept of love would require
abstract thought to be understood.
• Children develop the ability to use reason and
logic. Logic is the ability to objectively consider a
CRITICISMS OF PIAGET’S
THEORY
• Many research studies have confirmed various aspects of
Piaget’s theory or extended Piaget’s theories into other areas of
development.
• However, since the 1970s in particular, other researchers have
also discovered that infants know a lot more, and know it
sooner, than Piaget believed they did.
• Key cognitive accomplishments described by Piaget for the
different stages are often achieved by children much younger
than the ages proposed by Piaget.
• A further criticism of Piaget’s theory is that Piaget may have
overestimated young children’s language ability, leading him to
assume that wrong answers came from faulty thinking.
• Piaget’s theory has also been criticised for the small number of
participants in many of the experiments he conducted to test
his ideas. In particular, Piaget often referred to examples
involving his own children. Most of his experiments were not
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
• Social development is the continuous, lifelong
development of certain skills, attitudes,
relationships, and behaviours that enable an
individual to interact with others and to function
as a member of society.
• Infants may begin to demonstrate social
behaviours by smiling at others.
• By the age of three or four, children will typically
begin to learn to share, take turns, follow simple
rules, and form friendships with others.
• By the age of six, most children will learn to
develop deeper friendships with other children,
learn to compare themselves to others, learn
how to listen to and communicate with others.
WHAT INFLUENCES
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT?
• Parents have the ability to influence their
children’s social development.
• E.g. A child who is not encouraged or allowed to
participate in extracurricular activities may
experience a different timeline of social
development in comparison to a child who is.
• Children’s social development is also influenced
by their experiences within a school setting and
peer relationships.
• Research has found that social interactions
between children of similar ages and skill levels
promotes the development of essential social
skills.
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

• Erik Erikson (1902–1994) developed a stage

theory of development, but he focused on
personality development.
• Erikson believed that personality
development occurs through a combination
of the effects of psychological processes
which take place within individuals (psycho)
and the experiences of individuals during
their lifetimes, particularly their interaction
with other people (social).
• This is why he called his
theory psychosocial development.
PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISES
Each crisis involves a struggle between two
opposing tendencies, one of which comes from our
internal personal needs and the other from the
demands of society, but both are experienced by
the person.
E.g. A child around 4 years old may have the crisis
about expressing their anger. They want to hit their
parent who said ‘no’ them (personal need to
express anger), but they will be shamed and feel
guilty later (demands of society).
According to Erikson, our
personality is shaped by how we
deal with or resolve the
psychosocial crises.
PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISES
In Erikson’s theory, a crisis is not a
catastrophe but a turning point in life.
According to Erikson, the better an
individual deals with a psychosocial
crisis in any stage, the healthier their
psychosocial development and
therefore personality development.
PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT - STAGES
• Erikson viewed psychosocial development
as a progression through eight sequential
stages.
• Each stage corresponds with a different
period in the lifespan.
• In each of these stages, the individual has
to deal with a different psychosocial crisis
that is normal for people at that time in life.
• A psychosocial crisis is a personal
conflict an individual faces in adjusting to
society.
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
VARIES BETWEEN PEOPLE
• According to Erikson, the ages at which
people go through each of the eight
stages can vary because of each
individual’s unique life experiences.
• However, the order in which individuals
progress through the stages is fixed.
• Erikson believed that it is necessary to
experience each crisis (but not
necessarily to resolve it) before
proceeding to the next stage.
Regardless of whether a psychosocial conflict is successfully resolved, individuals move
into the next psychosocial stage because they mature.
TASKS:
1. Watch the Edrolo videos on
Erikson’s Theory (2C Part 3 – 13
mins) pause and make notes in
your book while you watch. Must
have headphones for this option.
https://edrolo.com.au/s/2451380/
Or
2. Read slide 64-72 and make notes
in your book/booklet summary
table (pg 13-14).
STAGE 1: TRUST VERSUS
MISTRUST (0 TO 12–18
MONTHS)
• When an infant develops a
healthy sense of trust, they will
view the world as safe and
predictable. This leads to them
developing into both a trusting
and trustworthy person.
• If an infant’s needs are not
reliably met, their world becomes
unpredictable and they develop a
sense of mistrust, which leads to
STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VERSUS SHAME
AND DOUBT (12–18 MONTHS TO 3
YEARS)
• When a child develops a sense of
autonomy (independence and self-
reliance) they believe that they are
capable and have self-confidence.
They then develop into a person
later in life, who has belief in their
own abilities.
• If parents are over-protective and
don’t let a toddler/child try to do
things for themselves, or overly
critical, this can cause self-doubt or
even shame to develop and a loss of
STAGE 3: INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT
(3–5 YEARS)
• It is ideal for a child to resolve this crisis with a
balance between having initiative but also being
able to feel guilt if they ‘go to far’.
• Children who are given a lot of freedom and the
opportunity to initiate play activities will develop
their sense of initiative (able to plan, think for
oneself and carry out various kinds of activities
with purpose.)
• However, if children are made to feel that their
play is silly and stupid, that their questions are
annoying or a nuisance, etc, then they may
develop a sense of guilt over self-initiated
activities.
• This can lead to a person who has very
STAGE 4: INDUSTRY VERSUS
INFERIORITY (5–12 YEARS)
• This period corresponds with the primary school
years, it is the stage when the child must learn
to work and become productive.
• When children are encouraged in their efforts to
get the most out of things, to do practical things
(whether it be to cook, assemble a jigsaw
puzzle,etc), are allowed to finish their products
and are praised and rewarded for their results,
then their sense of industry is enhanced.
• But parents/teachers who see the child’s efforts
as ‘mischief’ and ‘making a mess’ promote the
development of a child’s sense of inferiority.
When children feel less adequate than their
peers in achievements, skills and abilities, they
develop a sense of inferiority which can persist
STAGE 5: IDENTITY VERSUS ROLE
CONFUSION (12–18 YEARS) – PART 1

• In this period, which corresponds with

adolescence, the psychosocial crisis is
about developing a sense of identity (a
sense of understanding who they
are as a person).
• If the person has reached adolescence
with a healthy sense of trust, autonomy,
initiative and industry, then their
chances of developing a meaningful
sense of identity are much better. The
opposite is true for the person who
enters adolescence with considerable
STAGE 5: IDENTITY VERSUS ROLE
CONFUSION (12–18 YEARS) – PART 2

• When young people do not attain a

sense of personal identity, they show
a certain amount of role
confusion — a sense of not knowing
who they are, where they belong, or
where they are headed in life.
• According to Erikson, such confusion
is often seen in ‘delinquent young
people’.
• Also often these people take
an excessively long time to
STAGE 6: INTIMACY VERSUS
ISOLATION (18–25 YEARS)
• During later adolescence and the early years of
adulthood, it becomes possible for the first time to
engage in a truly intimate relationship with another
person outside the family; to love another person for
their real qualities (this can be a sexual relationship but
does not HAVE to be).
• Forming an intimate relationship in this stage lays the
ground-work for later successful, close relationships.
• People who lack a sense of identity tend to isolate
themselves, or form superficial or shallow relationships
with others. They then develop a sense of Isolation (the
sense of being alone without anyone to share one’s life
with or care for).
• If a person is isolated at this stage, they often continue
as an adult to avoid commitment to another person in a
serious relationship.
STAGE 7: GENERATIVITY VERSUS
STAGNATION (25–65 YEARS)

• Stage 7 corresponds with adulthood.

• Generativity refers to a person’s concern with others
beyond their immediate family, with future generations and
the nature of the society and world in which those
generations will live.
• It is about being able to contribute in a lasting way to society
and show care for others. There are many ways people can
do this; having kids, working a fulfilling job, volunteering etc
• If people don’t achieve this, they develop a sense of
stagnation.
• Stagnation refers to a sense of ‘sameness’, inactivity,
boredom, too much concern with personal needs and a lack
of personal growth.
• Stagnation can result in an obsession with oneself, severe
depression or despair in the next stage.
STAGE 8: INTEGRITY VERSUS
DESPAIR (65+ YEARS)
• The eighth and final stage occurs when most
of a person’s life’s work is nearing completion
and there is time for reflection.
• The sense of integrity arises from the
individual’s ability to look back on their life
with satisfaction.
• At the other extreme is the individual who
looks back on life with a sense of
despair. Despair involves bitter feelings of
hopelessness, involving lost opportunities,
mistakes that were made and the sense that
life has been empty.
CRITICISMS OF ERIKSON’S
THEORY
• Erikson’s psychosocial theory provides a useful outline
for understanding aspects of personality development
and interpreting some of the major changes that
occur at different times throughout the lifespan. Also
it covers the entire lifespan from birth to older age.
• Criticisms of Erikson’s theory have been based on the
lack of experimental evidence to support it.
• Another criticism of Erikson’s theory is that it does not
consider how socio-cultural influences can have
differing effects on males and females. The theory
primarily focuses on males.
• Also the model does not account for cultural
differences, all of Erikson’s research was conducted
on Western societies.
• Some stages have been criticised as invalid or
inaccurate. Also the ages outlined in each stage may
 74

TASKS

1. Complete booklet work pg 9-17.

2. Optional - Complete Edrolo 2C practice
questions – 18, 19 & 21.
2D – CRITICAL AND
SENSITIVE
PERIODS
 76

THE ROLE OF
GENES
Genes play an important role in
shaping the course of
development in ones life through
a process known as maturation.
Maturation is a developmental
process which is automatic and
functions internally.
Maturation refers to the
orderly developmental
changes which occur in the
nervous system and other
bodily structures controlled
by our genes.
MATURATION
• The theory of maturation suggests that the
development of all individuals follows the same
process or pattern, barring significant interference
from environmental factors.
• That is, we all go through predetermined, maturationally
dependent stages.
• For example, in language development, the ability to ‘talk’
starts with sounds that are unrecognisable as meaningful
words. We then develop the ability to say individual words,
then the ability to string two or three words together into a
phrase such as ‘I want biscuit’. By about two years of age
we are usually able to construct short sentences, etc, etc.
• In order to speak using sentences, our brain must be
maturationally ready, or developed sufficiently to process
sounds and enable us to understand words.
• In addition, the muscles in our mouth, particularly the
tongue and lips must also be sufficiently developed so that
we can move and coordinate them in the manner required
BRAIN PLASTICITY & MATURATION
• The neural pathways in the brain
can be altered or strengthened as
the result of experiences, similar to
the way a muscle gets stronger with
repeated use.
• Plasticity refers to the brain’s
ability to physically change shape in
response to experience and learning.
• Experiences throughout our life can
help shape or add to the brain’s
map, therefore altering the
BRAIN PLASTICITY & MATURATION
• Infants and children have more
malleable brains, meaning that the
brain’s structural pathways can change
physically and with ease in response to
experiences during maturation.
• An individual’s readiness to change
follows a relatively linear sequence
throughout the lifespan.
• Certain periods in infancy and
childhood are more suited to acquiring
certain psychological functions, as
these periods best suit the brain’s
SENSITIVE PERIODS IN
DEVELOPMENT
A sensitive period is the optimal developmental
period for a specific function or skill to be learnt.
Outside this period of time, the same environmental
influences need to be stronger to produce the same
effects.
Sensitive periods are sometimes described as
‘windows of opportunity for learning’ because they
are the best possible times for the relevant learning
to occur.
Sensitive periods most commonly occur during
infancy and early childhood due to the greater level
of brain plasticity and neural growth at this time.
E.g. learning a second language is much easier and
faster up to age 12.
CRITICAL PERIODS IN
DEVELOPMENT
A critical period is the narrow, rigid
developmental period in which a specific skill
or function must be learnt.
Critical periods have identifiable start and
end times, thereby tending to begin and end
suddenly, rather than gradually as do
sensitive periods.
Humans do not have many critical periods, it
is a more common phenomenon in animals.
E.g. Konrad Lorenz demonstrated this with
baby ducks, who have a critical period for
attachment.
CRITICAL PERIODS IN
DEVELOPMENT
It is now understood that there is a critical
period for learning to speak our native
language.
Researchers have shown that humans are born
with a predisposition to acquire language.
There is a set period in which all components of
language acquisition need to develop, or they
may never fully develop.
This critical period varies but for our first
language it is between the first 3-5 years of
life.
If we do not learn to speak our language during
this time, we can still learn but it will take much
longer, be more difficult and the learning will
CRITICAL PERIODS IN
DEVELOPMENT

There is also a critical period for

sight in humans.
If the human eye is not exposed
adequately to light within the first
3 months of life, the visual cortex
will fail to develop normally and
the person will suffer a
measureable visual impairment.
In some cases they will be blind
in this eye forever.
 85

SUMMARY

Booklet pg
TASK:
Watch short video on Genie case study.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VjZ
olHCrC8E

1. Read pg 124 of Edrolo textbook for

more information (Edrolo video 2D).
2. Complete worksheet to analyse the
Genie study – booklet pg 16.
3. Complete Research Methods
worksheet on the hypothetical study
– booklet pg 17.
 87

TASKS

1. Complete booklet work pg 18-21.

2. Complete Edrolo 2D practice questions – select which
option suits you today.

Easy Medium Challenging

Q3-9 Q8-14 Q12-13 & 15-18
THIS CONCLUDES
UNIT 1 AOS 1 PART A
Homework:
1. Make sure that all notes on this section
of the course are complete (you can use
the powerpoint OR Edrolo videos 2A-2D).
2. Complete Edrolo questions as specified
on this powerpoint – OR do them all.
3. Finish tasks in booklet – summary tables,
practice questions etc.