UNIT 11

FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Foundations of Curriculum

• The curriculum needs to be securely established in socio-

cultural, philosophical, and psychological bases for all-
around development of the learner. The philosophical and
socio-cultural foundations provide answer to the question
"Why do we need a curriculum?"; psychological
foundations, "How would curriculum be used in schools?"
1. Sociological Foundations

• Society and culture relate to curriculum in the sense that they are part of the
bases and sources of many curriculum matters and decisions. Whatever
changes there are in them, education in general and curriculum in particular
are affected.
• The societal changes/forces affect the school, and hence, the curriculum:
these include:
• Cultural Tradition - may become a stumbling block to progress, especially
because school stakeholders are part of the community-at-large .
• Textbooks - determine to a large extent the curriculum because of its
availability, organized structure and easy bases for test construction.
• Laws-affect curriculum in terms of funding, policies, and programs.
• Moral values-are reflected in the curricular especially because of socio-
cultural basis..
• Schools exist within the context of society and influence
culture which in turn shapes curriculum. A curriculum
should be able to prepare students for the present and the
future. In other words, a curriculum should address the
wants and needs of learners by responding to social
conditions locally, nationally and globally.
• The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and
encompassing. Hence, to be relevant, the curricula
should reflect and preserve the culture of society and Its
aspirations. At the same time, society should also imbibe
the changes brought about by the formal institutions
• Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society. Society
Influences society through its curriculum. Schools, through their teaching
of the curriculum, can shape and mould society and society in turn can
Impact the curriculum.
• Society is increasingly becoming diverse. Societies are becoming more
multicultural, multiethnic and multi- religious and it is important that
curriculum understands and reflect these changes. As the world moves
towards becoming a global village, society will become even more diverse
with people bringing in new values new languages and a new way of life.
Addressing diversity in the curriculum will continue to be a challenge for
educators. Cultural diversity of pluralism recognizes that most societies
are composed of many voices and many ethnic groups.
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

• “Philosophy points out to the

society what. . . is to be achieved
through education.” –Thomas
Ogwara, et. al.
2. Philosophical Foundations
• Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision
making and is the basis for all subsequent decisions regarding
curriculum. Philosophy gives direction to curriculum and
becomes the criteria for determining the aims, selection,
organization and Implementation of the curriculum in the
classroom and the school in general; the schools' underlying
beliefs and values have Impact on curriculum content and
choices of appropriate strategies activities in implementing the
curriculum. Philosophy helps us answer the general questions
such as: "What are schools for?", "What subjects are of
value?", "How should students learn the content?"
 Philosophical Foundations
• Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must
have a philosophy or strong belief about education and schooling
and the kind of curriculum in the teachers' classrooms or learning
environment. Philosophy of the curriculum answers questions like:
What are schools for? What subjects are important? How should
students learn? What methods should be used? What outcomes
should be achieved? Why? The various activities in school are
influenced in one way or another by a philosophy. John Dewey
influenced the use of "learning by doing", he being a pragmatist. Or
to an essentialist, the focus is on the fundamentals of reading,
writing and arithmetic, the essential subjects in the curriculum.
• Philosophy is at the heart of curriculum development. It
helps educators in formulating beliefs, arguments, and
assumptions and in making value judgments.
Philosophy develops a broad outlook, and it also helps
in answering what schools are for, what subjects are
important, how students should learn, and what
materials and methods should be used. Philosophy
provides the starting point . . . in decision making about
education in its totality (Ogwara, et. al, 2013).
Essential Questions

• How is philosophy a “crucial determinant” in curriculum

trends and development?
• What are the broad categories of philosophy, and what
beliefs are espoused in each?
• What do you perceive as the pros and cons of each
philosophy?
• What is your philosophy of teaching and learning as it
relates to curriculum?
• How does your philosophy of teaching and learning drive
your future personal and professional choices?
Areas of Fundamental Idea(s) Curricular Implications
Philosophy
Metaphysics study of what is beyond the natural Curriculum must go beyond its content;
(what is real is true); systematic must consider students what the
analysis of the question of ultimate students can become
reality, fundamental existence of
reality, developed during middle
age

Epistemology truth about the nature of Curriculum should revolve around the
knowledge; has to do with effective issues an teaching-leaming process
approaches to teaching:
recognizes importance of
education; It asks What is true?;
Also discusses How we know?
What we know?

Logic focuses on logical and accurate The goal of all curricula must be the
thought patterns; focuses on the development of the ability of students to
formal structure of truth and think logically
argument
• Thus, philosophy is a crucial determinant of curriculum trends and the
curriculum development process by helping clarify our thought
process. And, because philosophy is a process of the mind, there are
a variety of philosophical thoughts that need consideration.
• There are two broad categories of philosophy:
• the traditional and modern philosophies. In each of those categories,
there are major philosophies such as idealism, realism, pragmatism,
and existentialism, as well as educational philosophies arising from
those major philosophies. These include perennialism and
essentialism in the traditional category,
• while progressivism and reconstructionism fall under the modern
philosophies.
• Many sources consider philosophy to be “the study of
basic ideas about knowledge, truth, right and wrong. . .
and the nature of meaning of life.” (Merriam-Webster
Dictionary). Locke defines philosophy as a “process of
liberation from ignorance and prejudice” (Curriculum
Studies, 2020.)
• According to Doll (1992: 28), philosophy has the
multifaceted effect of helping us to:
• indicate in general what we mean,
• make what we mean more specific and definite, and
• develop what we mean into a useful construct.
 Idealism
• Idealism is considered one of the oldest philosophical systems,
whose main proponent was the Greek philosopher, Plato. Idealism
advocates that ideas constitute what is real and permanent, i.e.
ideas are the only true reality. Idealism also emphasizes the
spiritual component of man, i.e., man is a spiritual being.
• According to this philosophy, education is the process of
development of a person, his/her conscious and spiritual self. The
ultimate responsibility for learning rests with learners. The school
exists to develop character, increase knowledge, and cultivate
aesthetic taste. The teacher is expected to be a model, friend, and
guide to the learners.
Realism

• The realist’s school of thought is traced back to Aristotle,

another main, Greek philosopher. According to this philosophy,
matter or objects that we see exist by themselves, i.e., they exist
absolutely with or without man. In other words, matter is not a
construct of the human mind.
• The following principles are therefore upheld:
• the principle of independence of matter,
• the principle of orderliness of the world behind its organization,
this means that law and order prevail in the universe,
• the principle of the world as real as discovered by the scientist.
• Thus, it is possible to have objective knowledge of the world. Our senses
are also a source of knowledge. The philosophy also advocates that values
exist objectively; they are absolute and eternal.
• What then are the educational implication of realism? Following are a few:
• The ultimate educational aim is achievement of knowledge of nature and
inner workings of the universe.
• Education is essentially transmission of inherited culture from one
generation to another.
• Disciplines of curriculum should contain certain elements of culture.
• Students should learn disciplines to develop intellectual skills to discover
important principles and theoretical insights.
• Based on this philosophy, there should be a core curriculum for every
learner.
Pragmatism

• The main proponent of pragmatism was John Dewey (1859 -1952). The proponents
of pragmatism were reacting against what they considered as failures or
shortcomings of the traditional school system, supported by idealism and realism.
Some of the criticisms included:
• Traditional curriculum content included a lot of meaningless and needless content.`
• Traditional curriculum did not give a “utility education.”
• The curriculum was rigid and did not cater to individual needs of particular learners.
• Pragmatists, therefore, advocated for reality being considered as instrumental, i.e.,
used as an instrument to solve problems. Philosophy is therefore built on practical
usefulness, i.e., “cash value of ideas.” Hence, truth is what works, what turns out all
night. Truth also should be the idea that has been tested, verified, and found
effective in solving problems.
• What are the educational implications of pragmatism?
• Learning from Experience
• If experience is the source of knowledge, it is also a source of
education. We learn by doing. However, not every experience is
educative; experience must be productive, i.e., produce growth.
• Educational Aim: Develop Learners’ Ability to Deal with
Future Problems
• That is, to develop intelligence to solve problems. According to
Dewey, the process involves:
• identifying the problem,
• formatting a hypothesis(es),
• gathering or collecting data and tools to solve the problem,
• testing each hypothesis, and
• storing the unity of knowledge for use in some similar situations.
• Curriculum
• Pragmatists propose a curriculum based on problems that arise out of daily living.
School is therefore an extension of home and community.
• Methods of Study
• These should include:
• problem-solving,
• activity,
• projects, and
• group involvement.
• Teachers should be a resource and guide; thus a motivator. Teaching must be
child-centered.
• For pragmatists, all subjects are vital. However, sciences are favored because the
child is able to explore new knowledge.
Existentialism

• According to Akinpelu (1981), existentialism is defined as “the

philosophy of existence.” Sartre (1957) also states that “man is
nothing else but what he makes of himself.” A person is therefore free
to choose the type of life to live and is in control of his/her destiny. An
individual is thus free to make choices and be responsible for them.
• Reality, therefore, is subjective. Values emphasized are those that the
individual chooses freely according to his/her perception.
• Implications of Existentialism on Education and Curriculum
• The main implication is an emphasis on knowledge and abilities for
personal choice. Hence, the need to acquire knowledge and
principles of the human condition and acts of choice-making.
• Curriculum should have a broad range of subject matter from
which learners can choose, i.e., electives, and an inclusion of
subjects that involve:
• human emotions,
• aesthetics, and also,
• philosophical subjects.
• Most important is that philosophy can free learners to expand their
learning and what they believe. Thus, there should be no standard
guides for teachers to follow, given that learners are unique.
• The following video links philosophies to curricular designs and
design considerations:
• https://youtu.be/t4A9XD4Whttps://youtu.be/t4A9XD4WD2UD2U
 Educational Philosophies
• Based on the major philosophies so far discussed, certain
educational philosophies were developed by various
scholars. Let us examine some of them.
• We begin by pointing out that there are two broad
categories of educational philosophies: the traditional and
the modern philosophies.
• Traditional educational philosophies
include perennialism and essentialism; while modern
educational philosophies include progressivism and
reconstructionism.
Perennialism

• Perennialism draws from both idealism and realism. The perennialists believe
that the “cement of education, is the common nature of man” (Doll, 1992:29).
With that focus, education should be the same for everyone.
• Education must therefore pursue perennial truths. These truths are absolute and
universal. The philosophy presupposes that there are permanent studies and
knowledge that is available, particularly from the great books, which should be
taught to all students.
• The stress is on significance of reason and intellectual development. Curriculum
is expected to contain “important” subjects taught in their customary separate
form, e.g., history as history, geography as geography, and civics as civics,
rather than combining them and naming them “Social Studies” for example.
• Other subjects emphasized on include literature, philosophy, and theology
because of their ability to “sharpen the mind.”
Essentialism

• Essentialism focuses on traditional subjects, reading,

writing, and mathematics. This philosophy aims to instill
students with the “essentials” of academic knowledge and
character development. In the following video, Dr.
Thomas Lickona describes the importance of respect and
responsibility in schools.
• with perennialism, essentialism is also on the major traditional
philosophies of idealism and realism. Essentialist’s educational aims are to
develop intellectual powers, as well as educate competent persons.
Schools should therefore not be side-tracked into catering to the personal
problems and social needs of students. Cultural heritage needs should be
considered for curriculum making. Essential skills especially reading,
writing, and arithmetic (three Rs) and academic subjects such as English,
science, and mathematics are given priority in the education process with
an emphasis on mastery of concepts and principles of subject-matter.
• As with perennials, the curriculum is subject-centered and emphasized
separate organized disciplines as opposed to integrated subjects. The
teacher in this case is considered an authority in his/her subject field.
Moving from traditional educational philosophies, let us now examine
more modern ones.
Progressivism

• Progressivism is one of the educational philosophies originating from

pragmatism. Hence all that we discussed earlier about pragmatism
holds true for progressivism.
• Besides Dewey’s contribution, other scholars in this area include
Montessori, Cornelius, and Rousseau. Their studies and research
were geared towards identifying the most appropriate type and
nature of curriculum for learners.
• Progressivists education seeks to promote democratic schooling as
well as social living. The other major emphasis is on a child or
learner-centered curriculum. The curriculum therefore is based on
the learners’ interests, needs, abilities, and aspirations, among other
characteristics of the learners.
• Progressive education curriculum emphasized five
approaches to the teaching/learning process, namely:
• teacher-pupil planning of curriculum activities,
• flexible curriculum and individualized instruction, and
• learner-centered teaching and learning methodology.
• Selection of study material in line with the expressed
interests and concerns of the learner. Non-formal
curriculum activities and physical training in areas like
games, related hobbies, and other co-curricular areas.
• The aim of this form of education is to provide a learning
atmosphere that allows children maximum self-direction and to
reduce teacher domination in the teaching/learning process.
• Concerning progressivism, the emphasis is on a child-centered
curriculum, which necessitates a flexible and broad curriculum.
There is also an emphasis on practical skills.
• In general, it is possible to identify elements of past education in
the present-day curricula in many education systems within the
United States and the rest of the world,
• Constructivism is often considered to be an offshoot of
progressivism.

•
Reconstructionism

• Reconstructionists hold on to an anthropological–sociological

philosophy that would put schools at the forefront of remaking society.
Reconstructionism evolved from a critical perspective of the work of
the progressivists who put much emphasis on the needs of the child,
sometimes at the expense of societal needs.
• Reconstructionists’ educational aims are to improve and reconstruct
society as need be, as well as education for change and social
reform. Thus, the study of contemporary social problems become the
centerpiece of curriculum content.
• The critical social problems might be national or global including such
issues as oppression, poverty, hunger, racial/ethnic strife, war, and
health issues such as HIV/Aids.
• The reconstructionists believe that resources are
available to solve these problems and the education
profession could be the catalyst to prepare and
organize future generations to make this possible.
They, however, try to avoid indoctrinating children;
rather, they seek to lead them in rational discussion
and critical analysis of issues.
• Reconstructionists use multiple teaching materials, and
they consider the inclusion of subject matter that would
be useful to serve the central cause of the issue of
concern. Planning of curriculum often involves various
stakeholders including learners, parents, and
• Based on students’ interests.
• Involves the application of human problems and affairs.
• Interdisciplinary subject matter; activities and projects.
 Overview of Educational Philosophies
Educational Philosophical Education Knowledge Educational Curriculum
Philosophy Base Aims Focus Roles Focus

Perennialism Idealism Educate the Focus on past Teacher helps Classical

rational person. and permanent students think subjects
studies, rationally. Constant
Realism Cultivate mastery of Explicit curriculum
the intellect. facts, and teaching of
timeless traditional
knowledge. values.

Essentialism Idealism Promote the Essential skills Teacher is an Essential skills

Realism intellectual and academic authority in his (three Rs –
growth of the subjects or her subject reading, writing,
individual. Mastery of field. and arithmetic)
Educate the concepts and Explicit Essential
competent principles of teaching of subjects
person. subject matter traditional (English, scienc
values. e, history, math)
 CONTINUATION
Educational Philosophical Education Aims Knowledge Educational Curriculum
Philosophy Base Focus Roles Focus

Progressivism Pragmatism Promote Knowledge leads Teacher is a Based on

democratic, to growth and guide for students’
social living. development. problem-solving interests.
Focus on active and scientific Involves the
and relevant inquiry. application of
learning. human problems
and affairs.
Interdisciplinary
subject matter;
activities
and projects.

Reconstructivis Pragmatism Improve and Skills and Teacher serves Emphasis on

m reconstruct subjects needed as an agent of social sciences
society. to identify and so change and and social
Education is for lve problems of reform. research
change and society. Helps students methods.
social reform become aware Examination of
of problems social,
• Theories of Subject Matter
• From Curriculum Studies, pp. 55-58
• Based on the educational philosophies: perennialism,
essentialism, and progressivism, certain theories of subject
matter have been advanced. The theories, as stated below,
highlight the type and purpose of subject matter in the
curriculum.
• Theory 1: Subject matter should be taught for its own sake.
• Theory 2: Subject matter should be taught for use.
• Theory 3: Subject matter is merely a medium for teaching
intellectual processes, skills, attitudes and appreciations.
• Theory I
• “Subject matter should be taught for its own sake.” Supporters of
this theory believe that everything has intrinsic value. They believe
that each subject has value in and of itself.
• Naturally then some subjects are more valuable than others, not
because they are more useful than others but because they have
greater intrinsic value. According to this position, whether or not the
pupil will ever make use of subjects like algebra, Latin, or physical
education does not matter. The important thing is that the learner
should study subjects that have the greatest value. The task for the
curriculum developer is to identify those subjects deemed to have
more value.
• Theory 2
• “Subject matter should be taught for use.” Supporters of
this theory hold that the value of a subject depends upon
the use that is made of it. This position derives from the
philosophical belief that value is operational instrumental.
• Basically, this is an essentialist’s position. According to
this belief, in planning curricula, priority should be given to
those studies that the learners will most likely need to
know. In this sense these subjects are essential.
Theory 3

• It is merely a medium for the teaching of intellectual

prcesses, skills, attitudes, ideals, and appreciations.”
Supporters of this theory are mainly the progressivists.
They believe that in this changing world of changing
values, no subject matter is essential for its intrinsic
value; and that it is very difficult to tell which subject
matter is likely to be most functional.
• Following now is a discussion on sociological foundations.
Changes include:
• Family-life disintegration in many of the U.S. and other
countries and globally; which forces the schools to take
on more responsibilities previously assumed by the family.
• Movements of the population, for instance, rural-urban
migration.
• These issues need consideration in curriculum
development. Also, some of these issues affect formal
schooling for some people necessitating the need for
other modes of education, such as distance education.
•

•Thank you