Introduction to

Crystallography and Mineral

Crystal Systems
UNIT-1
 Why Crystallography in
Geosciences?
 Most of the Earth is made of solid rock. The basic units from which
rocks are made are minerals.

 Minerals are natural crystals, and so the geological world is largely

a crystalline world.

 The properties of rocks are ultimately determined by the properties

of the constituent minerals, and many geological processes
represent the culmination - on a very grand scale - of microscopic
processes inside minerals.

 For example, large-scale processes, such as rock formation,

deformation, weathering and metamorphic activity, are controlled
by small-scale processes, such as movement of atoms (diffusion),
shearing of crystal lattices (dislocation movement), growth of new
crystals (nucleation, crystallization), and phase transformations.
 Why Crystallography in
Geosciences?
 An understanding of mineral structures and properties also allows us to
answer more immediate questions, such as why quartz and diamond are
so hard, and why solid granite rock is destined to become soft, sticky
clay.

 Minerals are natural resources, providing raw materials for many

industries. Therefore, understanding minerals has geological as well as
economic applications.

 Definition of the term “MINERAL”: A mineral is a naturally occurring,

inorganic solid with a characteristic chemical composition and a
crystalline structure.
 Definition of Crystallography
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is the study of crystals.

 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is a part of the entire study of

mineralogy.

 Crystals are solids that form by a regular repeated pattern

of molecules connecting together.

 In some solids, the arrangements of the building blocks

(atoms and molecules) can be random or very different
throughout the material.

 In crystals, however, a collections of atoms called the Unit

Cell is repeated in exactly the same arrangement over and
over throughout the entire material.

 Very slow cooling of a liquid allows atoms to arrange

themselves into an ordered pattern, which may extend of a
long range (millions of atoms). This kind of solid is called
crystalline.
 Structural Properties of a
Crystal
 Crystallography is the science of determining the arrangement of
atoms within any solid structure.

 All minerals are crystalline structures made from a mixture of

different elemental compounds, and the shape of a crystal is based
on the atomic structure of these elemental building blocks.

 Atoms within a mineral are arranged in an ordered geometric

pattern called a "motif" which determines its "crystal structure.“

 A minerals's crystal structure will determine a its symmetry, optical

properties, cleavage planes, and overall geometric shape.

 A crystal's growth pattern is referred to as its "Crystal Habit."

 Shapes of Crystals
 In rocks the shapes of crystalline
grains/crystals are often classified as
Euhedral, Anhedral and Subhedral

 Euhedral: grains bounded by its own

perfect to near-perfect crystal growth
faces (C)

 Anhedral: irregular; little or no evidence

for its own growth faces (A)

 Subhedral: partly bound by its own

growth faces, or growth faces only
moderately well developed (B)
 Individual Crystal Systems and
the Axial System
 The crystal system is a grouping of crystal structures that are categorized
according to the axial system used to describe their atomic "lattice" structure.

 A crystal's lattice is a three dimensional network of atoms that are arranged in a

symmetrical pattern.

 Each crystal system consists of a set of three crystallographic axes (a, b, and c) in
a particular geometrical arrangement.

 The seven unique crystal systems, listed in order of decreasing symmetry, are:

 1. Cubic System,
 2. Hexagonal System,
 3. Tetragonal System,
 4. Rhombohedric (Trigonal) System,
 5. Orthorhombic System,
 6. Monoclinic System,
 7. Triclinic System.
 Cubic Crystal System
 This is also known as the isometric crystal system

 The cubic (Isometric) crystal system is characterized by its

total symmetry

 The Cubic system has three crystallographic axes that are

all perpendicular to each other, and equal in length.

 The three crystallographic axes a1, a2, a3 (or a, b, c) are all

equal in length and intersect at right angles (90 degrees) to
each other.
 The Hexagonal Crystal
System
 The hexagonal crystal system has four
crystallographic axes consisting of three
equal horizontal or equatorial (a, b, and d)
axes at 120°, and one vertical (c) axis that is
perpendicular to the other three.

 The (c) axis can be shorter, or longer than

the horizontal axes.
Tetragonal Crystal System
 A tetragonal crystal is a simple cubic shape that is stretched
along its (c) axis to form a rectangular prism.

 The tetragonal crystal will have a square base and top, but
a height which is taller.

 Three axes, all at right angles, two of which are equal in

length (a and b) and one (c) which is different in length
(Shorter or Longer)

Note: If c was equal in length to a or b, then we would be in

the cubic system!
 The Rhombohedral Crystal
System
 A rhombohedron has a three-dimensional shape that
is similar to a cube, but it has been skewed or inclined
to one side making it oblique.

 It is also known as the Trigonal crystal system.

 A rhombohedral crystal has six faces, 12 edges, and 8

vertices.

 If all of the non-obtuse internal angles of the faces are

equal (flat sample, below), it can be called a trigonal-
trapezohedron.
The Orthorhombic Crystal
System
 Minerals that form in the orthorhombic (aka rhombic) crystal
system have three mutually perpendicular axes, all with
different, or unequal lengths.

 The orthorhombic crystal system is also known as Rhombic

crystal system

 Three axes, all at right angles, and all three of different lengths.

 Note: If any axis was of equal length to any other, then we

would be in the tetragonal system!
 The Monoclinic Crystal
System
 Crystals that form in the monoclinic system have three
unequal axes.

 The (a) and (c) crystallographic axes are inclined toward

each other at an oblique angle, and the (b) axis is
perpendicular to a and c.

 The (b) crystallographic axis is called the "ortho" axis.

 Note: If a and c crossed at 90 degrees, then we would be

in the orthorhombic system!
The Triclinic Crystal System
 Crystals that form in the triclinic system have
three unequal crystallographic axes, all of which
intersect at oblique angles.

 Triclinic crystals have a 1-fold symmetry axis with

virtually no discernible symmetry, and no mirrored
or prismatic planes.

 Note: If any two axes crossed at 90 degrees, then

we would be describing a monoclinic crystal!
 The 7
Crystal Systems
 Crystal Symmetry
 Crystals, and therefore minerals, have an ordered internal
arrangement of atoms.

 This ordered arrangement shows symmetry, i.e. the atoms are

arranged in a symmetrical fashion on a three dimensional
network referred to as a lattice.

 When a crystal forms in an environment where there are no

impediments to its growth, crystal faces form as smooth
planar boundaries that make up the surface of the crystal.

 These crystal faces reflect the ordered internal arrangement of

atoms and thus reflect the symmetry of the crystal lattice.
 Crystal Symmetry
 To see this, imagine a small 2 dimensional crystal composed of atoms in
an ordered internal arrangement as shown below.

 Although all of the atoms in this lattice are the same, one of them is
gray so that its position can be tracked.

 If we rotate the simple crystals by 90o notice that the lattice and crystal
look exactly the same as what we started with.

 Rotate it another 90o and again its the same. Another 90o rotation again
results in an identical crystal, and another 90o rotation returns the
crystal to its original orientation.

 Thus, in 1 360o rotation, the crystal has repeated itself, or looks identical
4 times. We thus say that this object has 4-fold rotational symmetry.
 Crystal Symmetry
 There are three elements of symmetry for a crystal.

 These include :

 Axes of symmetry

 Plane of symmetry

 Center of symmetry

 These symmetry elements may be or may not be combined in the

same crystal. Indeed, we will find that one crystal class or system
has only one of these elements.
 Axes of Symmetry/Rotational
Symmetry
 If an object can be rotated about an axis and repeats
itself every 90o of rotation then it is said to have an
axis of 4-fold rotational symmetry.

 The axis along which the rotation is performed is an

element of symmetry referred to as a rotation axis.
 Axes of Symmetry/Rotational
Symmetry
 When rotation repeats form every 60 degrees, then we have sixfold or
HEXAGONAL SYMMETRY. A filled hexagon symbol is noted on the
rotational axis.

 When rotation repeats form every 90 degrees, then we have fourfold or

TETRAGONAL SYMMETRY. A filled square is noted on the rotational
axis.

 When rotation repeats form every 120 degrees, then we have threefold
or TRIGONAL SYMMETRY. A filled equilateral triangle is noted on the
rotational axis.

 When rotation repeats form every 180 degrees, then we have twofold
or BINARY SYMMETRY. A filled oval is noted on the rotational axis.

 When rotation repeats form every 360 degrees, then we use a filled
 Axes of Symmetry/Rotational
Symmetry
 The following types of rotational symmetry axes are
possible in crystals.

 1-Fold Rotation Axis - An object that requires

rotation of a full 360o in order to restore it to its
original appearance has no rotational symmetry.

 Since it repeats itself 1 time every 360o it is said to

have a 1-fold axis of rotational symmetry.
 Axes of Symmetry/Rotational
Symmetry
 2-fold Rotation Axis - If an object appears identical after a
rotation of 180o, that is twice in a 360o rotation, then it is said to
have a 2-fold rotation axis (360/180 = 2).

 Note that in these examples the axes we are referring to are

imaginary lines that extend toward you perpendicular to the
page or blackboard.

 A filled oval shape represents the point where the 2-fold

rotation axis intersects the page.
 Axes of Symmetry/Rotational
Symmetry
 3-Fold Rotation Axis- Objects that repeat
themselves upon rotation of 120o are said to
have a 3-fold axis of rotational symmetry
(360/120 =3), and they will repeat 3 times in
a 360o rotation.

 A filled triangle is used to symbolize the

location of 3-fold rotation axis.

 4-Fold Rotation Axis - If an object repeats

itself after 90o of rotation, it will repeat 4
times in a 360o rotation, as illustrated
previously.

 A filled square is used to symbolize the

location of 4-fold axis of rotational symmetry.
Axes of Symmetry/Rotational
Symmetry

 6-Fold Rotation Axis - If rotation of 60o

about an axis causes the object to repeat
itself, then it has 6-fold axis of rotational
symmetry (360/60=6).

 A filled hexagon is used as the symbol for a

6-fold rotation axis.
 Plane of Symmetry/
Mirror Symmetry
 Any two dimensional surface that, when passed through the
center of the crystal, divides it into two symmetrical parts
that are MIRROR IMAGES is a PLANE OF SYMMETRY.

 A mirror symmetry operation is an imaginary operation that

can be performed to reproduce an object.

 The operation is done by imagining that you cut the object

in half, then place a mirror next to one of the halves of the
object along the cut.

 If the reflection in the mirror reproduces the other half of

the object, then the object is said to have mirror symmetry.

 The plane of the mirror is an element of symmetry referred

to as a mirror plane, and is symbolized with the letter m.

 As an example, the human body is an object that

approximates mirror symmetry,
 Plane of Symmetry/
Mirror Symmetry
 The rectangles shown here have
two planes of mirror symmetry.

 The rectangle on the left has a

mirror plane that runs vertically
on the page and is perpendicular
to the page.

 The rectangle on the right has a

mirror plane that runs horizontally
and is perpendicular to the page.

 The dashed parts of the

rectangles below show the part
the rectangles that would be seen
as a reflection in the mirror
 Plane of Symmetry/
Mirror Symmetry
 The rectangles shown above have two planes of
mirror symmetry.

 Three dimensional and more complex objects

could have more. For example, the hexagon
shown above, not only has a 6-fold rotation axis,
but has 6 mirror planes.

 Note that a rectangle does not have mirror

symmetry along the diagonal lines. If we cut the
rectangle along a diagonal such as that labeled
"m ???", as shown in the upper diagram,
reflected the lower half in the mirror, then we
would see what is shown by the dashed lines in
lower diagram.

 Since this does not reproduce the original

rectangle, the line "m???" does not represent a
mirror plane.
 Plane of Symmetry/
Mirror Symmetry
Plane of Symmetry for the crystals in cubic system
 Center of Symmetry
 Most crystals have a center of symmetry, even though
they may not possess either planes of symmetry or axes of
symmetry.

 If you can pass an imaginary line from the surface of a

crystal face through the center of the crystal (the axial
cross) and it intersects a similar point on a face
equidistance from the center, then the crystal has a center
of symmetry.

 In this operation lines are drawn from all points on the

object through a point in the center of the object, called a
symmetry center (symbolized with the letter "i").

 The lines each have lengths that are equidistant from the
original points.

 When the ends of the lines are connected, the original

 Rotoinversion
 Combinations of rotation
with a center of symmetry
perform the symmetry
operation of
rotoinversion.

 Objects that have

rotoinversion symmetry
have an element of
symmetry called a
rotoinversion axis.
 Rotoinversion
 2-fold Rotoinversion - The operation of 2-fold rotoinversion
involves first rotating the object by 180o then inverting it through
an inversion center. A 2-fold rotoinversion axis is symbolized as a
2 with a bar over the top, and would be pronounced as "bar 2"

 3-fold Rotoinversion - This involves rotating the object by 120 o

(360/3 = 120), and inverting through a center. A 3-fold
rotoinversion axis is denoted as (pronounced "bar 3").

 4-fold Rotoinversion - This involves rotation of the object by 90o

then inverting through a center. A four fold rotoinversion axis is
symbolized as bar 4.

 6-fold Rotoinversion - A 6-fold rotoinversion axis involves

rotating the object by 60o and inverting through a center and is
called as bar 6.
 Combinations of Symmetry
Operations

 As should be evident by now, in three dimensional

objects, such as crystals, symmetry elements may be
present in several different combinations.

 In fact, in crystals there are 32 possible combinations of

symmetry elements.

 These 32 combinations define the 32 Crystal Classes.

 Every crystal must belong to one of these 32 crystal

classes.
 Combinations of Symmetry
Operations
 Here one example from the Tetragonal System to show
how the various symmetry elements are combined in a
somewhat completed crystal.

 Thus, this crystal has the following symmetry elements:

 1 - 4-fold rotation axis (A4)

 4 - 2-fold rotation axes (A2), 2 cutting the faces & 2
cutting the edges.
 5 mirror planes (m), 2 cutting across the faces, 2 cutting
through the edges, and one cutting horizontally through
the center.
 Note also that there is a center of symmetry (i).

 The symmetry content of this crystal is thus: i, 1A4, 4A2,

5m
 Hermann-Mauguin
(International) Symbols
 Before going into the 32 crystal classes, we
should first see how to derive the Hermann-
Mauguin symbols (also called the
international symbols) used to describe the
crystal classes from the symmetry content.

 We'll start with a simple crystal then look at

some more complex examples.

 The rectangular block shown here has 3 2-

fold rotation axes (A2), 3 mirror planes (m),
and a center of symmetry (i). The rules for
deriving the Hermann-Mauguin symbol are
as follows:
 Hermann-Mauguin
(International) Symbols
 Write a number representing each of the unique rotation
axes present.

 A unique rotation axis is one that exists by itself and is

not produced by another symmetry operation.

 In this case, all three 2-fold axes are unique, because

each is perpendicular to a different shaped face, so we
write a 2 (for 2-fold) for each axis

2 2 2

 Next we write an "m" for each unique mirror plane.

Again, a unique mirror plane is one that is not produced
by any other symmetry operation. In this example, we
can tell that each mirror is unique because each one cuts
a different looking face. So, we write:
 Hermann-Mauguin
(International) Symbols
 If any of the axes are
perpendicular to a mirror plane
we put a slash (/) between the
symbol for the axis and the
symbol for the mirror plane.

 In this case, each of the 2-fold

axes are perpendicular to mirror
planes, so our symbol becomes:

2/m2/m2/m
 Hermann-Mauguin
(International) Symbols
 Our second example involves the block shown here to
the right. This model has one 2-fold axis and 2 mirror
planes. For the 2-fold axis, we write:

 Each of the mirror planes is unique. We can tell that

because each one cuts a different looking face. So, we
write 2 "m"s, one for each mirror plane:

2mm

 Note that the 2-fold axis is not perpendicular to a

mirror plane, so we need no slashes. Our final symbol
is then:

2mm
 Hermann-Mauguin
(International) Symbols
 Our last example is from the cubic system
and is the most complex.

 Note that it has 3 4-fold rotation axes, each

of which is perpendicular to a square shaped
face.

 4 3-fold rotoinversion axes (some of which

are not shown in the diagram to reduce
complexity), each sticking out of the corners
of the cube.

 6 2-fold rotation axes (again, not all are

shown), sticking out of the edges of the
cube.

 In addition, the crystal has 9 mirror planes,

and a center of symmetry.
 Hermann-Mauguin
(International) Symbols
 There is only 1 unique 4 fold axis, because each is
perpendicular to a similar looking face (the faces of the
cube).

 There is only one unique 3-fold rotoinversion axes,

because all of them stick out of the corners of the cube,
and all are related by the 4-fold symmetry.

 And, there is only 1 unique 2-fold axis, because all of the

others stick out of the edges of the cube and are related
by the mirror planes the other set of 2-fold axes.

 So, we write a 4, a ͞3, and a 2 for each of the unique

rotation axes.

 There are 3 mirror planes that are perpendicular to the 4

fold axes, and 6 mirror planes that are perpendicular to
the 2-fold axes. No mirror planes are perpendicular to
the 3-fold rotoinversion axes. So, our final symbol
becomes:
 The 32 Crystal Classes
 The 32 crystal classes represent the 32 possible
combinations of symmetry operations.

 Each crystal class will have crystal faces that

uniquely define the symmetry of the class.

 These faces, or groups of faces are called crystal

forms.

 They are distributed amongst the 7 crystal systems

as shown here
 Hermann-
System Class Name AXES Planes Center Maugin
Symbols
2-Fold 3-Fold 4-Fold 6-Fold
Isometric Tetartoidal 3 4 - - - - 23
Diploidal 3 4 - - 3 yes 2/m ͞ 3
Hextetrahedral 3 4 - - 6 - 4 3m
͞
Gyroidal 6 4 3 - - - 432
Hexoctahedral 6 4 3 - 9 yes 4/m ͞3 2/m
Tetragonal Disphenoidal - 1 - - - 4͞
Pyramidal - - 1 - - - 4
Dipyramidal - - 1 - 1 yes 4/m
Scalenohedral 2 - 1 - 2 - 4 2m
͞
Ditetragonal pyramidal - - 1 - 4 - 4mm
Trapezohedral 4 - 1 - - - 422
Ditetragonal-Dipyramidal 4 - 1 - 5 yes 4/m 2/m 2/m

The 32 Crystal
Orthorhombic Pyramidal
Disphenoidal
1
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
-
mm2
222
Dipyramidal 3 - - - 3 yes 2/m 2/m 2/m
Classes Hexagonal Trigonal Dipyramidal
Pyramidal
-
- -
-
-
1
1
1
-
-
-
6͞
6
Dipyramidal - - - 1 1 yes 6/m
Ditrigonal Dipyramidal 3 - 1 4 - 6m2
Dihexagonal Pyramidal - - - 1 6 - 6mm
Trapezohedral 6 - - 1 - - 622
Dihexagonal Dipyramidal 6 - - 1 7 yes 6/m 2/m 2/m
Trigonal Pyramidal - 1 - - - - 3
Rhombohedral - 1 - - - yes 3͞
Ditrigonal Pyramidal - 1 - - 3 - 3m
Trapezohedral 3 1 - - - - 32
Hexagonal Scalenohedral 3 1 - - 3 yes 3 2/m
͞
Monoclinic Domatic - - - - 1 - m
Sphenoidal 1 - - - - - 2
Prismatic 1 - - - 1 yes 2/m
Triclinic Pedial - - - - - - 1
Pinacoidal - - - - - yes 1͞
 The 32 Crystal Classes
Note that the 32 crystal classes are divided into 7 crystal systems

 The Triclinic System has only 1-fold or 1-fold rotoinversion axes.

 Crystals of this system possess no mirror planes and may have one center of inversion
symmetry.

 There are two crystal class found in this system: Pedial and Pinacoidal .

 Some examples of minerals found in this system are microcline (K-feldspar),

plagioclase, turquoise, and wollastonite. Hermann
System Class Name AXES Planes Center Maugin
Symbols
2-Fold 3-Fold 4-Fold 6-Fold
Triclinic Pedial - - - - - - 1
Pinacoidal - - - - - yes 1͞
 The 32 Crystal Classes
 Monoclinic crystals demonstrate a single 2-fold rotation axis and/or a single mirror
plane.

 The crystals may have a center of symmetry.

 There are three crystal class found in this system: Domatic, Sphenoidal and Prismatic .

 Some examples of minerals that crystallize in this system include micas (biotite and
muscovite), azurite, chlorite, clinopyroxenes, epidote, gypsum, malachite,
kaolinite, orthoclase, and talc. Hermann
System Class Name AXES Planes Center Maugin
Symbols
2-Fold 3-Fold 4-Fold 6-Fold
Monoclinic Domatic - - - - 1 - m
Sphenoidal 1 - - - - - 2
Prismatic 1 - - - 1 yes 2/m
 The 32 Crystal Classes

 The Orthorhombic System has only two fold axes or a 2-fold axis and/or
up to 3 mirror planes.

 There are three crystal class found in this system: Pyramidal, Disphenoidal
and Dipyramidal .

 Some examples of minerals that crystallize in this system include andalusite,

anthophyllite, aragonite, barite, cordierite, olivine,Hermann sillimanite,
System Class Name AXES Planes Center Maugin
stibnite, sulfur, and topaz.
Symbols
2-Fold 3-Fold 4-Fold 6-Fold
Orthorhombic Pyramidal 1 - - - 2 - mm2
Disphenoidal 3 - - - - - 222
Dipyramidal 3 - - - 3 yes 2/m 2/m 2/m
 The 32 Crystal Classes
 Minerals of the Tetragonal System all possess a single 4-fold symmetry axis.
 They may possess up to four 2-fold axes of rotation, a center of inversion, and up to five
mirror planes.
 There are seven crystal classes found in this system: Disphenoidal, Pyramidal, Dipyramidal ,
Scalenohedral, Ditetragonal pyramidal, Trapezohedral and Ditetragonal-Dipyramidal.
 Some examples of minerals that crystallize in this system include Common minerals that
occur with this symmetry are anatase, cassiterite, apophyllite, zircon, and
vesuvianite.
Hermann
System Class Name AXES Planes Center Maugin
Symbols
2-Fold 3-Fold 4-Fold 6-Fold
Tetragonal Disphenoidal - 1 - - - 4͞
Pyramidal - - 1 - - - 4
Dipyramidal - - 1 - 1 yes 4/m
Scalenohedral 2 - 1 - 2 - 4 2m
͞
Ditetragonal pyramidal - - 1 - 4 - 4mm
Trapezohedral 4 - 1 - - - 422
Ditetragonal-Dipyramidal 4 - 1 - 5 yes 4/m 2/m 2/m
 The 32 Crystal Classes
 All crystals of the hexagonal system possess a single 6-fold axis of rotation.
 Crystals of the hexagonal system may possess up to six 2-fold axes of rotation.
 They may demonstrate a center of inversion symmetry and up to seven mirror
planes.
 There are seven crystal classes found in this system: Trigonal Dipyramidal, Pyramidal,
Dipyramidal, Ditrigonal Dipyramidal, Dihexagonal Pyramidal, Trapezohedral and
Dihexagonal Dipyramidal.
 Minerals species which crystallize in the hexagonal division are apatite, beryl, and high
quartz. Hermann
System Class Name AXES Planes Center Maugin
Symbols
2-Fold 3-Fold 4-Fold 6-Fold
Hexagonal Trigonal Dipyramidal - - 1 1 - 6͞
Pyramidal - - - 1 - - 6
Dipyramidal - - - 1 1 yes 6/m
Ditrigonal Dipyramidal 3 - 1 4 - 6m2
Dihexagonal Pyramidal - - - 1 6 - 6mm
Trapezohedral 6 - - 1 - - 622
Dihexagonal Dipyramidal 6 - - 1 7 yes 6/m 2/m 2/m
 The 32 Crystal Classes
 All crystals of the trigonal system have a single 3-fold axis of rotation.

 Crystals of this division may possess up to three 2-fold axes of rotation and may have a
center of inversion and up to three mirror planes.

 There are five crystal classes found in this system: Pyramidal, Rhombohedral, Ditrigonal
Pyramidal, Trapezohedral and Hexogonal Scalenohedral. Dipyramidal.

 Example of minerals which crystallize in the Trigonal system are calcite, dolomite, low quartz,
and tourmaline.
Hermann
System Class Name AXES Planes Center Maugin
Symbols
2-Fold 3-Fold 4-Fold 6-Fold
Trigonal Pyramidal - 1 - - - - 3
Rhombohedral - 1 - - - yes 3͞
Ditrigonal Pyramidal - 1 - - 3 - 3m
Trapezohedral 3 1 - - - - 32
Hexagonal Scalenohedral 3 1 - - 3 yes 3 2/m
͞
 The 32 Crystal Classes
 All crystals of the isometric system possess four 3-fold axes of symmetry.
 Crystals of the isometric system may also demonstrate up to three separate 4-fold
axes of rotational symmetry.
 Furthermore crystals of the isometric system may possess six 2-fold axes of
symmetry .
 Minerals of this system may demonstrate up to nine different mirror planes.
 There are five crystal classes found in this system: Tetroidal, Diploidal,
Hextetrahedral, Gyroidal and Hexoctahedral.
 Examples of minerals which crystallize in the isometric system are halite,
magnetite, and garnet. Hermann
System Class Name AXES Planes Center Maugin
Symbols
2-Fold 3-Fold 4-Fold 6-Fold
Isometric Tetartoidal 3 4 - - - - 23
Diploidal 3 4 - - 3 yes 2/m ͞3
Hextetrahedral 3 4 - - 6 - 4 3m
͞
Gyroidal 6 4 3 - - - 432
Hexoctahedral 6 4 3 - 9 yes 4/m ͞
3 2/m
 Crystal Forms
 A crystal form is a set of crystal faces that are related to each other by
symmetry or any group of crystal faces related by the same symmetry is called
a form.

 There are 48 possible forms that can be developed as the result of the 32
combinations of symmetry.

 Closed forms are those groups of faces all related by symmetry that
completely enclose a volume of space.

 It is possible for a crystal to have faces entirely of one closed form.

 Open forms are those groups of faces all related by symmetry that do not
completely enclose a volume of space.

 A crystal with open form faces requires additional faces as well.

 There are 18 open forms and 30 closed forms.

 Crystal Forms
 Monohedron: The monohedral crystal form is also called a pedion.
 It consists of a single face which is geometrically unique for the crystal and
is not repeated by any set of symmetry operations.
 Members of the triclinic crystal system produce monohedral crystal forms.
 These are open crystal forms.

 Parallelohedron: The parallelohedral crystal form is also called a

pinacoid.
 It consists of two and only two geometrically equivalent faces which occupy
opposite sides of a crystal.
 The two faces are parallel and are related to one another only by a
reflection or an inversion symmetry.
 Members of the triclinic crystal system produce parallelohedral crystal
forms.
 These are open crystal forms.
 Crystal Forms
 Dihedron: The dihedron consists of two and only two nonparallel
geometrically equivalent faces.
 The two faces may be related by a reflection or by a rotation.
 The dihedron is termed a dome if the two faces are related only by
reflection across a mirror plane.
 If the two faces are related instead by a 2-fold rotation axis then the
dihedron is termed a sphenoid.
 Members of the monoclinic crystal system produce dihedral crystal forms.
 These are open crystal forms.

 Disphenoid: Members of the orthorhombic and tetragonal crystal systems

produce rhombic and tetragonal disphenoids, which possess two sets of
nonparallel geometrically equivalent faces, each of which is related by a 2-
fold rotation.
 The faces of the upper sphenoid alternate with the faces of the lower
sphenoid in such forms.
 These are closed crystal forms.
Crystal Forms
 Crystal Forms
 Prism: A prism is composed of a set of 3, 4, 6, 8, or 12 geometrically
equivalent faces which are all parallel to the same axis.
 Each of these faces intersects with the two faces adjacent to it to
produce a set of parallel edges.
 Variants of the prism form include the rhombic prism, tetragonal prism,
trigonal prism, and hexagonal prism.
 Prisms are associated with the members of the monoclinic crystal
system.
 These are open crystal forms.

 Pyramid: A pyramid is composed of a set of 3, 4, 6, 8, or 12 faces

which are not parallel but instead intersect at a point.
 The orthorhombic, tetragonal and hexagonal crystal systems all
produce pyramids. Variants of the pyramid include rhombic pyramid,
tetragonal pyramid, trigonal pyramid, and hexagonal pyramid.
 These are open crystal forms.
 Crystal Forms

PRISM

PYRAMID
 Crystal Forms
 Dipyramid: The dipyramidal crystal form is composed of two pyramids placed
base-to-base and related by reflection across a mirror plane which runs parallel
to and adjacent to the pyramid bases.
 The upper and lower pyramids may each have 3, 4, 6, 8, or 12 faces; the
dipyramidal form therefore possesses a total of 6, 8, 12, 16, or 24 faces.
 The orthorhombic, tetragonal and hexagonal crystal systems all produce
dipyramids.
 They can be called as rhombic dipyramid, trigonal dipyramid, tetragonal
dipyramid, and hexagonal dipyramid.
 They are closed crystal forms.
 Crystal Forms
 Trapezohedron: A trapezohedron is a crystal form possessing 6, 8, or 12
trapezoidal faces.
 The tetragonal crystal system, the trigonal and hexagonal crystal system
produce trapezohedral crystal forms.
 Trigonal trapezohedra possess three trapezoidal faces on the top and
three on the bottom for a total of six faces;
 Tetragonal trapezohedra have four faces on top and four on the bottom
for a total of eight faces; and hexagonal trapezohedra have six faces on
top and six on the bottom, resulting in twelve faces total.
 They are closed crystal forms.

 Scalenohedron: A scalenohedron consists of 8 or 12 faces, each of

which is a scalene triangle.
 The faces appear to be grouped into symmetric pairs.
 The tetragonal, trigonal and hexagonal crystal systems produce the
scalenohedral crystal form, of which examples may be further described
as trigonal, tetragonal and hexagonal scalenohedra.
 They are closed crystal forms
Crystal Forms
 Crystal Forms
 Rhombohedron: The rhombohedral crystal
form possesses six rhombus-shaped faces.
 The rhombohedral crystal form is produced
only by members of the trigonal
/rhombohedral crystal system.
 They are closed crystal forms.

 Tetrahedron: A tetrahedron is composed of

four triangular faces.
 The tetrahedron crystal form is produced by
the members of the isometric crystal system.
 They are closed crystal forms.
 Crystal forms -OPEN
 The Pedion

 The Pinacoid

 The Dome

 The Sphenoid

 The Prism

 The Pyramid
Crystal Forms-CLOSED (Non-
isometric)
 The Scalenohedron

 The Rhombohedron

 The Trapezohedrons

 The Dipyramids

 The Disphenoid
 Crystal Forms-CLOSED
(Isometric)
 The Cube
 The Octahedron
 The Pyritohedron
 The Dodecahedron
 The Tetartoid
 The Tetrahedron
 The Diploid
 The Gyroid
 The Tetartoid
 The Trapezohedron
 The Hexoctahedron
 The Tetrahexahedron
 The Tristetrahedron
 The Trisoctahedron
 The Hextetrahedron
 No of Faces Open Form Closed Form
1 PEDION
PINAKOID
2 SPHENOID
DOME
TRIGONAL PRISM
3
TRIGONAL PYRAMID
RHOMBIC PRISM RHOMBIC DISPHENOID
RHOMBIC PYRAMID TETRAGONAL DISPHENOID
4
TETRAGONAL PRISM TETRAHEDRON
TETRAGONAL PYRAMID
HEXOGONAL PRISM CUBE
HEXAGONAL PYRAMID RHOMBOHEDRON
6
DITRIGONAL PRISM TRIGONAL DIPYRAMID
DITRIGONAL PYRAMID TRIGONAL TRAPEZOHEDRON
DITETRAGONAL PRISM OCTAHEDRON

The 48 possible
DITETRAGONAL PYRAMID RHOMBIC DIPYRAMID
8 TETRAGONAL DIPYRAMID
TETRAGONAL SCALENOHEDRON
TETRAGONAL TRAPEZOHEDRON

Crystal Forms DIHEXAGONAL PRISM

DIHEXAGONAL PYRAMID
DITRIGONAL DIPYRAMID
HEXAGONAL DIPYRAMID
HEXAGONAL DIPYRAMID
HEXAGONAL SCALENOHEDRON
HEXAGONAL TRAPEZOHEDRON
12
DODECAHEDRON
PYRITOHEDRON
TRISTETRAHEDRON
DELTOHEDRON
TETARTOID
16 DITETRAGONAL DIPYRAMID
DIHEXAGONAL DIPYRAMID
TRAPEZOHEDRON
TRISOCTAHEDRON
24
TETRAHEXAHEDRON
DIPLOID
GYROID
48 HEXOCTAHEDRON
 Crystal Morphology
 The symmetry observed in crystals as exhibited by their
crystal faces is due to the ordered internal arrangement
of atoms in a crystal structure, as mentioned previously.
 This arrangement of atoms in crystals is called a lattice.
 Crystal faces develop along planes defined by the points
in the lattice.
 In other words, all crystal faces must intersect atoms or
molecules that make up the points.
 A face is more commonly developed in a crystal if it
intersects a larger number of lattice points. This is
known as the Bravais Law.
 Crystal Morphology
 The angle between crystal faces is controlled by the
spacing between lattice points.

 Since all crystals of the same substance will have the

same spacing between lattice points (they have the
same crystal structure), the angles between
corresponding faces of the same mineral will be the
same.

 This is known as the Law of constancy of interfacial

angles.
 Crystal Morphology
 In two dimensions, there are five Bravais
lattices, called oblique, rectangular, centered
rectangular (rhombic), hexagonal, and
square.[
 Crystal Morphology
 Although there are only 7 crystal systems or
shapes, there are 14 different crystal lattices,
called Bravais Lattices in 3 dimesion.
 3 different cubic types,
 2 different tetragonal types,
 4 different orthorhombic types,
 2 different monoclinic types,
 1 rhombohedral,
 1 hexagonal,
 1 triclinic
Crystal Morphology