Learning Theories

Learning theories are organized

set of principles explaining how
individuals acquire, retain, and
recall knowledge. By studying
and knowing the different
learning theories, we can better
understand how learning occurs.
 1. Behaviorism

Behaviorism is based largely on the work of John B.

Watson and B. F. Skinner.
According to behaviorists, learning is dependent on a
person’s interactions with their external environment.
As people experience consequences from their
interactions with the environment, they modify their
behaviors in reaction to those consequences.
 1. Behaviorism
According to behavioral theorists, we
can change people’s behavior by
manipulating the environment in
order to encourage certain behaviors
and discourage others, a process
called conditioning (Popp, 1996).
 1. Behaviorism
The most famous example of
conditioning is Pavlov’s dog. In his
classic experiment, Pavlov
demonstrated that a dog could be
conditioned to associate the sound of
a bell with food, so that eventually
the dog would salivate whenever it
heard the bell, regardless of whether
Watson adapted stimulus conditioning to humans
(Jensen, 2018). He gave an 11-month-old baby a rat,
and the baby seemed to enjoy playing with it. Over
time, Watson caused a loud, unpleasant sound each
time he brought out the rat. Eventually, the baby
associated the rat with the noise and cried when he
saw the rat.
Skinner (1938) examined how
conditioning could shape behavior in
longer-term and more complex ways by
introducing the concept of
reinforcement. According to Skinner,
when people receive positive
reinforcement, such as praise and
rewards for certain behaviors, those
behaviors are strengthened, while
negative reinforcement will deter
 Learning Process
According to Skinner, by carefully
controlling the environment and
establishing a system of
reinforcements, teachers, parents,
and others can encourage and
develop desired behaviors (Jensen,
2018).
 Consequences that reinforce the
desired behaviors are arranged to
follow the desired behavior (e.g. study
for a test and get a good grade). The
new behavioral pattern can be repeated
so it becomes automatic. The change in
behavior of the leaner signifies that
learning has occurred.
 Behaviorism emphasizes the external
environment, behaviorism largely
ignores or discounts the role of internal
influences such as prior knowledge and
emotion (Popp, 1996). To an extent,
behaviorists view learners as blank
slates and emphasize the role of the
teacher in the classroom.
 Examples and
Applications
• Drill
• Repetitive practice
• Bonus points (providing an incentive to do
more)
• Participation points (providing an incentive
to do more)
• Verbal Reinforcement (“good job”)
• Establishing Rules
 2. Cognitive Information
Processing (Cognitivism)
• The theory is based on the idea that
humans process the information they
receive, rather than merely responding to
stimuli (think about what is happening).
• The changes in behavior are observed, but
only as an indicator to what is going on in
the learner’s head. The learner’s mind is
like a mirror from which new knowledge
and skills will be reflected.
 2. Cognitive Information
Processing (Cognitivism)

• To cognitivists, learning can be described as

“acquiring knowledge and skills and having
them readily available from memory so you
can make sense of future problems and
opportunities” (Brown et al., 2014, p. 2).
 2. Cognitive Information
Processing (Cognitivism)

Cognitive theories were developed in the

early 1900s in Germany by Wolfgang
Kohler.
Cognitive information processing is used
when the learner plays an active role in
seeking ways to understand and process
information that he or she received and
related it to what is already known and
stored within memory.
Nine Events of Instruction
• 1. Gain attention. Engage students’ attention by
tying learning to relevant events in their lives and
asking stimulating questions.
• 2. Inform the learner of the objective. Begin by
sharing the learning goals with the students, thus
setting expectations and providing a map of the
learning.
 Nine Events of Instruction
• 3. Stimulate recall of prior learning. Encourage students to remember
previously learned relevant skills and knowledge before introducing new

• 4.
information.
Present the stimulus. Share new information.
• 5. Provide learner guidance. Facilitate learning by demonstration and
• 6. Elicit performance. Allow time for students to practice skills and
explanation.

demonstrate their abilities.

 Nine Events of Instruction
• 7. Provide feedback. Offer students input on what they are
doing well and where they can improve.
8. Assess performance. Employ measures such as assignments,
activities, and projects to gauge whether learning has occurred.

9. Enhance retention and transfer. Give students opportunities to

practice skills in new contexts, which improves retention and helps
students see how the skills are applied to different areas.
Examples and Applications
• Linking Concepts
• Real world examples
• Discussions
• Imagery /providing pictures
• Mnemonics
Some critics believe that
cognitivism overemphasizes
memorization and recall of
facts to the detriment of
higher-order skills such as
creativity and problem solving.
 3. Constructivism
Constructivism is based on the
premise that we all construct our
own perspective of the world,
based on individual experiences
and internal knowledge.
 Learning Process

Does not fit into what they

already know, they experience
disequilibrium/cognitive
conflict and must adapt by
accommodating the new
information.
For example, once children learn what a dog is, they
might call any four-legged creature they see a dog. This
is assimilation, as the children are fitting new
information into their existing knowledge. However, as
children learn the differences between, say, a dog and
cat, they can adjust their schema to accommodate this
new knowledge (Heick, 2019).
Disequilibrium and accommodation
can be uncomfortable. People might
be confused or anxious when they
encounter information that does not
fit their existing schema, and they
might struggle to accommodate that
new information.
During assimilation, people might be adding new
bits of information to their knowledge store, but
they are not changing their understanding of the
world.
During accommodation, as people change their
schema, construct new knowledge, and draw new
connections among existing areas of knowledge,
actual learning occurs, and accommodation
requires disequilibrium.
Acknowledging the role of disequilibrium is important
for both instructors and students. People naturally want
to avoid discomfort, but that can also mean avoiding
real learning. As instructors, we can facilitate
accommodation by acknowledging that the process
might be challenging, and by creating conditions that
allow students to feel safe exploring new information.
We can reassure learners that feelings of discomfort or
anxiety are normal and provide them with low-stakes
opportunities to engage with new information.
Examples and Applications

• Case studies
• Research projects
• Brainstorming
• Collaborative learning/group
work
• Discovery learning
• It is important to consider:

• The level of knowledge of the

learners
• The thought processing, and
• The desired outcome
Thank you!