Classifications of Sensors

&Transducers
Definitions, classifications, general requirements
Some general statements
• Sensors/actuators are common
• Usually integrated in a system (never alone)
• A system of any complexity cannot be designed without them
• Very difficult to classify
• Difficult to get good data on them
• Definitions and terms are confusing
Definitions
• What are sensors and actuators?
• Why are they so difficult to classify?
• Too many principles involved
• Multi-discipline devices
• A mix of approaches to their design
• A mix of units and a range of complexities
Definitions - Sensors
• Also called: transducer, probe, gauge, detector, pick-up etc.
• Start with the dictionary:
• A device that responds to a physical stimulus and transmits a resulting impulse. (New Collegiate Dictionary)

• A device, such as a photoelectric cell, that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus. (American Heritage
Dictionary, 3rd ed., 1996)

• A device that responds to a physical stimulus (as heat, light, sound, pressure, magnetism, or a particular
motion) and transmits a resulting impulse (as for measurement or operating a control) . (Webster, 3 rd ed.,
1999)
Definitions - Transducer
• A device that is actuated by power from one system and supplies power usually in another form
to a second system. (New Collegiate Dictionary)

• A substance or device, such as a piezoelectric crystal, that converts input energy of one form into
output energy of another. (from: Trans-ducere – to transfer, to lead) (American Heritage
Dictionary, 3rd ed., 1996)

• A device that is actuated by power from one system and supplies power usually in another form
to a second system (a loudspeaker is a transducer that transforms electrical signals to sound
energy) . (Webster, 3rd ed., 1999)
Sensors

Stimulus (s) Signal (S)

Physical
Physical
Medium Sensing
Sensing Conditioning
Conditioning Target
Target
Medium
Element
Element Handling
Handling

Temperature Resistance Voltage Information

Transducers
Micro-sensors 10-6m
 Sensors
A sensor is a transducer that converts a physical stimulus from
one form into a more useful form to measure the stimulus
• Two basic categories:
1. Analog
2. Discrete
• Binary
• Digital (e.g., pulse counter) Ultrasonic
(distance)

Sound Light
Touch
(db pressure) (light intensity)
Other Sensors
• Temperature
• RFID
• Barcode
• Proximity
• Vision
• Gyroscope
• Compass
• Tilt/Acceleration
• Etc.
Definitions - Actuator
• A mechanism for moving or controlling something indirectly instead of by hand.
(New Collegiate Dictionary)

• One that activates, especially a device responsible for actuating a mechanical

device such as one connected to a computer by a sensor link (American Heritage
Dictionary, 3rd ed., 1996)

• One that actuates; a mechanical device for moving or controlling something.

(Webster, 3rd ed., 1999)
More confusion
• Transducer can mean:
sensor
actuator
transducer can be part of a sensor
sensor can be part of a transducer
• Many sensors can work as actuators (duality)
• Many actuators can work as sensors
• What is it then? - All of the above!
Example

• Direct sensor actuator link (not always possible)

• Two transduction steps (sound-electrical and vice versa)
• Note: sensor/transducer are one and the same
 Example

• Direct sensor actuator link

• Two transduction steps (sound-vibration and vice versa)
• What is the sensor sensor/actuator and what is the transducer?
Example

• Direct sensor actuator link

• Does not work:
• Sound is converted into change of resistance
• No transduction takes place (no change of energy)!
• Must add power to affect transduction
• Cannot work in opposite direction either
Example

• Transduction: pressure to current

• A telephone system has two of these!
 Our definitions:
Sensor
• A device that responds to a physical stimulus.

Transducer
• A device that converts energy of one form into energy of another form.

Actuator
• A device or mechanism capable of performing a physical action
 Our definitions:
Stimulus
• The quantity that is sensed.
• Sometimes called the measurand.
Classification of Sensors and
Actuators
• Based on physical laws
• Based on any convenient distinguishing property
• Possible to a certain extent - some devices defy
classification

1. Active and Passive sensors

2. Contact and non-contact sensors
3. Absolute and relative sensors
4. Other schemes
 1. Active and passive
sensors
Active sensor: a sensor that requires external power to operate.
Examples: the carbon microphone, thermistors, strain gauges,
capacitive and inductive sensors, etc.
Other name: parametric sensors (output is a function of a
parameter - like resistance)

Passive sensor: generates its own electric signal and does not
require a power source. Examples: thermocouples, magnetic
microphones, piezoelectric sensors.
Other name: self-generating sensors
Note: some define these exactly the other way around
 2. Contact and noncontact
sensors
Contact sensor: a sensor that requires physical contact with
the stimulus. Examples: strain gauges, most temperature
sensors

Non-contact sensor: requires no physical contact.

Examples: most optical and magnetic sensors, infrared
thermometers, etc.
 3. Absolute and relative
sensors
Absolute sensor: a sensor that reacts to a stimulus on an
absolute scale: Thermistors, strain gauges, etc., (thermistor
will always read the absolute temperature)

Relative scale: The stimulus is sensed relative to a fixed or

variable reference. Thermocouple measures the temperature
difference, pressure is often measured relative to atmospheric
pressure.
4. Other schemes
Classification by broad area of detection
• Electric sensors
• Magnetic
• Electromagnetic
• Acoustic
• Chemical
• Optical
• Heat, Temperature
• Mechanical
• Radiation
• Biological
• Etc.
4. Other schemes
(cont.)
Classification by physical law
• Photoelectric
• Magnetoelectric
• Thermoelectric
• Photoconductive
• Magnitostrictive
• Electrostrictive
• Photomagnetic
• Thermoelastic
• Thermomagnetic
• Thermooptic
• Electrochermical
• Magnetoresistive
• Photoelastic
• Etc.
4. Other schemes
(cont.)
Classification by specifications
• Accuracy
• Sensitivity
• Stability
• Response time
• Hysteresis
• Frequency response
• Input (stimulus) range
• Resolution
• Linearity
• Hardness (to environmental conditions, etc.)
• Cost
• Size, weight,
• Construction materials
• Operating temperature
• Etc.
4. Other schemes
(cont.)
Classification by area of application
• Consumer products
• Military applications
• Infrastructure
• Energy
• Heat
• Manufacturing
• Transportation
• Automotive
• Avionic
• Marine
• Space
• Scientific
• Etc.
Classification of
actuators
• Low power actuators
• High power actuators
• Micropower actuators
• Etc.
Classification of
actuators
All of the above
In addition:
Classification of actuators by type of motion
• Linear
• Rotary
• One-axis
• Two-axes
• Three-axes
• Etc.
 Sensing and actuating
strategies
Look at sensors based on broad area of detection
Discuss actuators wherever they fit with sensors
Concentrate on the major classes
Emphasize compatibility of classes of sensors and
actuators.
 Requirements for
interfacing
Needs:
• Matching (impedances, voltages, currents, power)
• Transformations (AC/DC, DC/AC, A/D, D/A, VtoF, etc.)
• Matching of specifications (temperature ranges,
environmental conditions, etc.)
• Alternative designs
• Etc.
Connection of sensors/actuators

• The processor should be viewed as a general block

• Microprocessor
• Amplifier
• Driver
• Etc.
• Matching: between sensor/processor and processor/actuator
Example - Temperature control

• Sense the temperature of a CPU

• Control the speed of the fan to keep the temperature constant
Temperature control -
implementation

• Sometimes the A/D and signal conditioning are separate

from the processor
• The whole circuitry may be integrated into a “smart sensor”
• Match: impedance at input to amplifier and at processor
Temperature control - Alternative
design

• Simpler (uses an integrated sensor that contains some of the necessary circuitry). May still
require an A/D
• The performance of this design is not the same (range is 0-85C while the previous design was
200 to 2000 C or more)
Units
• SI units in most cases
• Standard units when understanding warrants it (e.g. psi for pressure)
• Will avoid mixed units (a common problem in sensors and actuators)
Computer-Process Interface
• To implement process control, the computer must
collect data from and transmit signals to the
production process
• Components required to implement the interface:
• Sensors to measure continuous and discrete process
variables
• Actuators to drive continuous and discrete process
parameters
• Devices for ADC and DAC
• I/O devices for discrete data
Computer Process Control System

Transformation Process

Continuous and Discrete Continuous and Discrete

Parameters Variables

Actuators
Actuators Sensors
Sensors

DAC
DAC ADC
ADC
Computer
Computer
Controller
Controller
Output Devices Input Devices