Solution to Systems of

Linear Equations I
Outline
• Matrices
• Special Types of Matrices
• Matrix Operations
• Determinant
• Adjoint
• Inverse
• Systems of Linear Equations
Matrices
• Matrix – a rectangular array of numbers of functions arranged in rows

• An 𝑚 × 𝑛
(m) and columns (n)

⋯ 𝑎
�1
𝑎11
�2𝑛
𝑛
𝐴
matrix:
𝑎21
𝑎12 ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
= 𝑎 ⋯
𝑎𝑚1
22
𝑎𝑚
𝑛
𝑎𝑚2
Special Types of Matrices
1. Row Matrix or Row Vector 7. Scalar Matrix
2. Column Matrix or 8. Identity Matrix
Column Vector 9. Null Matrix
3. Square Matrix 10. Symmetric Matrix
4. Upper Triangular Matrix 11. Skew Symmetric Matrix
5. Lower Triangular Matrix
6. Diagonal Matrix
Special Types of Matrices

𝐴 … 𝑎𝑛
𝑎1 𝑎2
= 𝑏
1. Row Matrix or Row Vector –
matrix consisting of only one
row
1
𝐵 = 𝑏
2. Column Matrix or Column Vector –
matrix consisting of only one column

𝑐1 𝑏
𝑐1𝑛
2
𝑐1
⋮
𝐶
3. Square Matrix – matrix in which the
1 2 3
number of rows is equal to the

= 𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑐2
number of columns

1 2 3
Special Types of Matrices
𝑐1 𝑐1 𝑐1
𝐶
3. Square Matrix – matrix in which the
1 2 3
number of rows is equal to the

= 𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑐2
number of columns
• Principal Diagonal or Main Diagonal –

1 2 3
elements of the square whose row index

𝑐𝑖𝑗 where 𝑖 = 𝑗 𝑐3 𝑐3 𝑐3
is the same as their column index.

1 2 3
• Trace – sum of the elements of
the

𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑐11 + 𝑐22 + 𝑐33 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛𝑛

principal diagonal of a square matrix
Special Types of Matrices
𝑢11 𝑢12 𝑢1
𝑈 = 0 𝑢22
4. Upper Triangular Matrix – a square
3
0 0
matrix whose elements below the
𝑢2
principal diagonal are zero
3
𝑢3
3

𝑙11 0 0
𝐿 𝑙22 0
5. Lower Triangular Matrix – a square
𝑙21
= 𝑙33
matrix whose elements above the
𝑙31 𝑙32
principal diagonal are zero

6. Diagonal Matrix – a square matrix that

is both an upper and a lower triangular
𝑑11 0 0
Special Types of Matrices
𝑠 0 0
𝑆 0 𝑠 0
7. Scalar Matrix – is a diagonal matrix

= 0 0 𝑠
whose diagonal elements are equal

8. Identity Matrix – represented by 𝑰𝒏, 1 0

𝐼3 0
= 0 1
a diagonal matrix where all the

0 00 ⋯ 0
elements along the main diagonal are

0 00 0⋯
equal to 1.
9. Null Matrix – represented by 𝑂, is 0
𝑂
⋮ 1⋮ ⋱ ⋮
=
0 0 ⋯ 0
a matrix in which all the elements
are zero.
Special Types of Matrices

1 2 4
whose element 𝒂𝒊𝒋 = 𝒂𝒋𝒊. 𝑌 2 2
10. Symmetric Matrix – a square matrix

= −5
4 −5 3
10. Skew Symmetric Matrix – 𝐾 0 2
= −4
element 𝒂𝒊𝒋 = −𝒂𝒋𝒊.
a square matrix whose
−2 0
−5
4 5
Matrix Operations
1. Matrix Addition
2. Scalar Multiplication
3. Matrix Subtraction
4. Matrix Transposition
5. Matrix Multiplication
6. Matrix Exponentiation
Matrix Operations
1. Matrix Addition – must be the same
size
Matrix Operations
2. Scalar Multiplication
Matrix Operations
3. Matrix Subtraction – must be the same
size
Matrix Operations
4. Matrix Transposition – swap row and column index
Matrix Operations
5. Matrix Multiplication – let 𝐶 =
𝐴𝐵
• Matrix 𝑨 is an 𝒎 × 𝒏 matrix
• Matrix 𝑩 is an 𝒏 × 𝒑 matrix
• Matrix 𝑪 is an 𝒎 × 𝒑 matrix
• for 𝑖 = 1: 𝑚
• for• 𝑗𝐶= 1:=𝑝𝑠𝑢𝑚(𝐴 𝑖, : .∗ 𝐵
:,𝑗 ′)
𝑖, 𝑗
• end
• end
Matrix Operations
6. Matrix Exponentiation – repeated (square) matrix multiplication
Determinant
• Determinant – a scalar value that tells us some properties of a square
matrix
• It can tell us if a matrix is invertible and can be used in solving the inverse of
a matrix

• The determinant of a matrix 𝐴 can be written as det(𝐴) or |𝐴|

• It can be used in solving systems of linear equations

• Methods in Solving for the Determinant

1. Diagonal Method – applicable only for 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 matrices
2. Cofactor Method
3. Chio Pivotal Condensation Method
Determinant
• Methods in Solving for the Determinant
1. Diagonal Method – applicable only for 2 × 2 and 3 × 3
𝑎1 𝑎1
matrices

1 2 = 𝑎11𝑎22 − 𝑎21
𝑎2 𝑎2
𝑎1 𝑎1 𝑎1 𝑎1 𝑎12 𝑎12
1 𝑎 2 𝑎11 22𝑎33 + 𝑎12𝑎23𝑎31 + 𝑎13𝑎21
𝑎32 𝑎
1 2 3 1 22
𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎2 = −𝑎31𝑎22𝑎13 − 𝑎32𝑎23𝑎11 −
1 2 3 1 𝑎32
𝑎3 𝑎3 𝑎3 𝑎3 𝑎33𝑎21𝑎12

1 2 3 1
Determinant
• Methods in Solving for the Determinant
2. Cofactor Method

• Complementary Minor, 𝒅𝒆𝒕(𝑴𝒊𝒋) or

• In the cofactor method, we need to define the following terms first:
𝑴
element 𝒂𝒊𝒋 of the matrix 𝐴 is the determinant of the sub-matrix 𝑀𝑖𝑗
𝒊
– also known as minor of
obtained after eliminating the 𝑖𝑡ℎ row 𝒋and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column of matrix 𝐴
an
• Algebraic Component, 𝑨𝒊𝒋 – also known as cofactor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of
the matrix 𝐴 is the signed minor obtained from the formula 𝐴𝑖𝑗 =
−1 𝑖+𝑗|𝑀𝑖𝑗|
• The determinant of a matrix 𝐴
𝑛 𝑛

det = 𝑜𝑟 =
is:
𝐴 𝑘=1 det 𝐴 𝑘=1
Determinant
• Methods in Solving for the Determinant
• Complementary Minor, 𝒅𝒆𝒕(𝑴𝒊𝒋) or |𝑴𝒊𝒋| – also known as minor of an element 𝒂𝒊𝒋 of
2. Cofactor Method
the matrix 𝐴 is the determinant of the sub-matrix 𝑀𝑖𝑗 obtained after eliminating the 𝑖𝑡ℎ
and of matrix 𝐴
𝑗𝑡ℎ
row column
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝐴 = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎22

𝑀1 = 𝑎22 𝑎23 = 𝑎323 3 = 𝑎22 𝑎33 − 𝑎32
1 𝑎31 𝑎2 𝑎3
𝑎21 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎23
𝑎11 = �1 = 𝑎11 𝑎 − 𝑎31
�1 �1
2 𝑎12 𝑎23
�3 �3 𝑎3
�2
𝑎 32
13
3 𝑎31 𝑎32 12
𝑀 = 𝑎121
� 𝑎 �222 3
Determinant
• Methods in Solving for the Determinant
2. Cofactor Method
• Algebraic Component, 𝑨𝒊𝒋 – also known as cofactor of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 of the matrix 𝐴 is
𝐴𝑖𝑗 = 𝑖+𝑗|𝑀 |
−1
𝑖𝑗
signed minor obtained from the formula
the

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎22

= 𝑎 = 𝑎23
𝑀1 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 3 3 = 𝑎22 𝑎33 − 𝑎32
𝑎13
1 𝑎31 𝑎2 𝑎3
𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎23
𝐴11 −1 𝑎22𝑎33 − = 𝑎22𝑎33 −
= 1+1
𝑎11 𝑎12𝑎 𝑎 𝑎32𝑎23
𝑎1323
32 𝑎11 𝑎12
= 𝑎22
𝑎23 = 𝑎31 𝑎32 = 𝑎11 𝑎32 − 𝑎31
𝑀2
𝑎21
3 𝑎31 𝑎32
𝑎12
𝐴23 𝑎
−133
𝑎11𝑎32 − = −𝑎11𝑎32 +
= 2+3
𝑎31𝑎12 𝑎31𝑎12
Determinant
• Methods in Solving for the Determinant

• The determinant of a matrix 𝐴

2. Cofactor Method
𝑛 𝑛

det = 𝑜𝑟 det 𝐴 =
is:

𝐴 𝑘=1 𝑘=1
• We can choose any row or column in getting the determinant of a
given matrix.
• Expanding in a row or column with many zeros is a good choice because
it will cancel out many minors, so we do not need to calculate them.
Determinant
• Methods in Solving for the Determinant

the determinant of an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix in terms 𝑛 − 1 × (𝑛 −

3. Chio Pivotal Condensation Method – method for evaluating

1)
• Let matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] with 𝑎𝑖𝑖 ≠ 0
of determinants.

• Let matrix 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗] such that 𝑏𝑖𝑗

= 𝑎11𝑎=𝑖+1 ,(𝑗+1) − 𝑎1, 𝑗+1 𝑎 𝑖+1 ,1
• det
𝐴 det 𝑎𝐵
𝑛−2
1
1
Determinant
• Methods in Solving for the Determinant

determinant of an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix in terms of 𝑛 − 1 × (𝑛 − 1)

3. Chio Pivotal Condensation Method – method for evaluating the

determinants.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎1𝑛
⋯ 𝑎21 𝑛
• Explicitly,
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎21 𝑎23

1 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎13 𝑎1 𝑎1𝑛

det 𝐴 = ⋯
𝑎𝑛−2 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎31 𝑎33 1 𝑎3𝑛
11 ⋮ ⋮ 𝑎3 ⋮
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎13 𝑎1𝑛
⋯ 1
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛3 ⋱ 𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑎1
1
Determinant
• Methods in Solving for the Determinant
3. Chio Pivotal Condensation Method
function detA = chiosdet(A)
n = length(A);
if n == 1
detA = A(1,1);
else
for i = 1:n-1
for j = 1:n-1
B(i,j) =
A(1,1)*A(i+1,j+1) -
A(1,j+1)*A(i+1,1);
end
end
det
A=
chios
det(B)
Determinant
• Theorems on Determinants
1. If a square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] contains a row (or column) that has elements
𝐴 = 0.
2. The determinant of a square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is equal to the determinant
all equal to zero, then

of its transpose 𝐴′ = [𝑎𝑗𝑖].

𝐴 = |𝐴′|
3. If a row (or column) of a square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is multiplied by a

𝑘, then the determinant of the resulting matrix 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗] is equal to 𝑘

constant

times the determinant of 𝐴.

𝐵 = 𝑘|𝐴|
Determinant
• Theorems on Determinants
4. As a corollary to the third theorem, if 𝐴 has a row (or column) that has a
common factor 𝑘, then this 𝑘 may be factored out of the determinant
of 𝐴, where a simplified matrix 𝐵 is formed.
2𝑥𝑦 3𝑥 2𝑥 𝑦 3𝑥 2𝑥 𝑦 3𝑥
= 2𝑥𝑦 3 4
4𝑥 6𝑦 2𝑥 =6𝑦2𝑥𝑦(2)
8𝑦
2 2

8𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
𝑦
5. 6𝑥 18 (or columns) 18 2𝑥𝑦
3 a square 𝐴 = [𝑎 3] were
18 interchanged
2𝑥 𝑥 𝑖𝑗
to 𝑦 2𝑥𝑦 2𝑥𝑦
If two rows of matrix

form a new matrix 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗], then

𝐵 = −|𝐴|
Determinant

6. If two rows (or columns) of a matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] are identical, then

• Theorems on Determinants

𝐴=0

a square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] are multiples of the corresponding elements of

7. As a corollary to the sixth theorem, if the elements in a row (or column) of
another row (or column) of the matrix 𝐴, then
𝐴=0
8. If matrix 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗] is a square matrix of order 𝑛 that is derived from
another square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] of order 𝑛, by adding correspondingly
the elements of a row (or column) to a multiple of the elements of another

𝐵 = |𝐴|
row (or column), then
Determinant
• Theorems on Determinants
9. If the elements of one row (or column) of a square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] of

𝑛 may be expressed as binomials such that two square matrices 𝐵 =

order

[𝑏𝑖𝑗] and 𝐶 = [𝑐𝑖𝑗] both of order 𝑛, are formed after splitting the

𝐴 = 𝐵 + |𝐶|
binomial elements, then

10. The determinant of the product of two square matrices 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] and
B = [𝑏𝑖𝑗] of the same order 𝑛 is equal to the product of the
determinant of 𝐴 and the determinant of 𝐵
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴 |𝐵|
Determinant
• Theorems on Determinants
11. The determinant of a triangular matrix is equal to the product of
the
elements in its principal diagonal.
12. The determinant of an Identity Matrix is equal to 1.
Adjoint
• Adjoint – a square matrix with the same order as the matrix we are
getting the adjoint of, that is the transpose of the matrix composed

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = [𝐴𝑖𝑗]′
of its cofactors.
Inverse
• Inverse – a square matrix with the same order as the matrix we are
getting the inverse of, such that the product of the original matrix
=
and its inverse is the Identity Matrix.
𝐴
𝐴− 𝐴𝐼𝑛
𝐴1−1 = 𝐼𝑛
• Not all matrices has an inverse.
• If a matrix has an inverse, we say that the matrix is invertible or non-singular.
• If a matrix does not have an inverse, we say that it is non-invertible or

• The inverse of a matrix 𝐴 can be calculated from its adjoint and determinant:
singular. The determinant of a singular matrix is zero.
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
𝐴 −1 =
𝐴
Systems of Linear Equations

𝑎11𝑥1 + 𝑎12𝑥2 + 𝑎13𝑥3 = 𝑏1

• A set of “m” equations with “n” unknowns:

𝑎21𝑥1 + 𝑎22𝑥2 + 𝑎23𝑥3 = 𝑏2

𝑎31𝑥1 + 𝑎32𝑥2 + 𝑎33𝑥3 = 𝑏3

𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
• We can write this in matrix form:

where 𝐴 is the matrix of coefficients;

𝑋 is the column vector of unknowns (variables);

𝐵 is the column vector of constants

and
Systems of Linear Equations
𝐴𝑋 =
𝐵 𝑎1
𝑎11 𝑎1
𝐴=
𝐴𝑋 =
2 3
𝑎21 𝑎2 𝑎2
𝑎31 2𝑥 𝐵
�1 �1 � 1
3

𝑋
𝑎3 𝑎3 �1 �1
𝑎 𝑎
�22 𝑎�32 𝑥
� = 𝑏
1
2𝑥 �12
= 3 �
2 1 2 3 2
𝑏 𝑥
2
𝑥1 𝑎3 𝑎3 𝑎3
𝐵=
3
𝑏
1 2 3 3
𝑏2 3

𝑏3
Systems of Linear Equations
• Let the number of equations be 𝑚
and the number of unknowns be 𝑛
𝐴𝑋 =
• There are 3 cases for a system of linear
• 𝒎 < 𝒏: not enough equations, system 𝐵
equations:

𝑎1 𝑎1 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑏
has

•𝒎that= 𝒏:
no unique solution

=
there aremaynobe solvable,
contradicting
1 2 3
system
1
𝑥
1
• 𝒎 > 𝒏 : may be solvable, provided 𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑏
dependent equations.
or
provided

1 2 3 2
there are no contradicting equations and
that
removed to make the system 𝑚 = 𝑛.
𝑥
2
𝑎3 𝑎3 𝑎3
there are dependent equations that can be

𝑏
1 2 3 3
3
Systems of Linear Equations

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 =
• Contradicting equation examples:

3
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 =
7
4𝑥 + 6𝑦 =
10

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 3
• Dependent equation examples:

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 3
4𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 6
Systems of Linear Equations
• The following methods are only applicable when 𝑚 = 𝑛 (number
of equations is the same as number of unknowns):
1. Inverse Method
2. Cramer’s Rule
3. L-U Decomposition
Seatwork
• Let your Student ID be 20𝑥𝑦 − 𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑒𝑓.

𝑐 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓
• Given the following matrix:

1 0 0 3
𝐴=
6 −9 3 −2
3 0 1 0
• Solve for the following (show your complete

𝑎𝑑𝑗
solution):
• |𝐴|
𝐴
•
• 𝐴
−1