Introduction

• Circuit Analysis is essential to study of Engineering.

• Additionally, it is an education in Logical Thinking.
• Application of three simple scientific laws:
– Ohm’s Law,
– Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) and
– Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).

• A study of more appropriately “ Linear Circuit Analysis”.

– Non-linear models, though much more accurate, are more complex as well.
• Linear circuit analysis can be separated into four broad
categories: (1) dc analysis, where the energy sources do
not change with time; (2) transient analysis, where things
often change quickly; (3) sinusoidal analysis, which
applies to both ac power and signals; and (4) frequency
response,

 Introduction
• We begin our journey with the topic of resistive circuits,
which may include simple examples such as a flashlight or
a toaster. This provides us with a perfect opportunity to
learn a number of very powerful engineering circuit analysis
techniques, such as nodal analysis, mesh analysis,
superposition, source transformation, Thévenin’s
theorem, Norton’s theorem, and several methods for
simplifying networks of components connected in series or
parallel.
• In circuit analysis, we refer to transient analysis as the
suite of techniques used to study circuits which are
suddenly energized or de-energized.
• Fortunately, for situations where equipment is to run long
enough for transient effects to die out, and this is commonly
referred to as ac or sinusoidal analysis, or sometimes
phasor analysis. 
 Introduction
• The final leg of our journey deals with a subject known as
frequency response. Working directly with the differential
equations obtained in time-domain analysis helps us
develop understanding of the operation of circuits
containing energy storage elements (e.g., capacitors and
inductors). Laplace and Fourier analysis, allow us to
transform differential equations into algebraic equations.
Such methods also enable us to design circuits to respond
in specific ways to particular frequencies.
• Circuit analysis teaches us to learn how-:
– To be methodical,
– To determine the goal of a particular problem,
– To work with the information given to develop a plan of action,
– To implement the plan to obtain a solution and finally,
– To verify that the proposed solution is accurate.


 Introduction….contd
• In electrical / electronics engineering, there is a need to
transfer energy / communicate from one point to another.
• This requires an interconnection of certain devices.
• Such interconnection is called electrical / electronic
circuit.
• Each component of the circuit is called an element.
• Circuit Analysis means a study of the behavior of the
circuit.
• This course is focused on developing our ability to analyze
and solve problems because it is the starting point in every
engineering situation. The philosophy of this course is that
we need clear explanations, well-placed examples, and
plenty of practice to develop such an ability. Therefore,
elements of design are integrated into end-of-chapter
problems.

 Introduction….contd
• We, therefore, need to study basic concepts of :-
– Charge,
– Current,
– Voltage or Potential Difference,
– Work / Energy
– Power and
– Circuit Elements.
• Units and Scales !


 Units & Scales
• The value of any measurable quantity requires both a
number and a unit such as “3 meters”.
• Since 1960, General Conference on Weights and Measures
adopted the International System of Units (SI).
• The 7 basic SI units of physical quantities, assumed to be
mutually independent, are :-

Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Thermodynamic Temp kelvin K
Luminous Intensity candela cd
Amount of Substance mole mol
• ….contd 
 Units & Scales

• ….contd 
 Units & Scales ….contd 9

• All else is derived from these basic 7 units.

• Fundamental unit of work (or energy) is joule.
• One joule of work is done when a force of one newton moves
an object through one meter.
• One joule in SI base units is kg m2 s-2.
• One Btu is 1055 joules. (Btu is the amount of work needed to
raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree
Fahrenheit.)
• Power is defined as the rate at which work is done or energy
is expended.
• The fundamental unit of power is the watt.
• One watt is defined as 1 joule/sec.
• One watt is equal to 1/746 horsepower (hp).
• A power level of 1 hp is approximately equivalent to 746 watt
s (W) or 0.746 kilowatt s (kW).
• One kilowatthour (kWh) is 3.6 X 106 J.

 10

• The Charge.
 11
Charge
• All matter consists of atomic particles.
• Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles.
• Unit of measure of charge is coulomb ‘C’ (Coulomb
1736 – 1806).
• Charge ‘e’ of an electron is negative & equal in
magnitude to 1.602 X 10-19 C. Concurrently, a single
proton has a charge of + 1.602 X 10-19 C.
• One coulomb of charge is present on 1 / 1.602 X 10-19
electrons. This is equal to 6.24 X 1018 electrons.
• Charge is represented by ‘Q’ (time-invariant) and q(t) or
‘q’ when it varies with time.
• Law of conservation of charge states that charge can
neither be created nor destroyed. 
 Current 12

• A unique feature of charge is that it is mobile.

• Charge in motion is called electric current represented by ‘I’
or i(t) or ‘i’.
• When force is applied or work is done, negative charges can
be made to move in one direction while the positive charges
can be made to move in the opposite direction, thus
constituting a current.
• It is conventional to take current flow as movement of
positive charges (Benjamin Franklin 1706 – 1790).
• A convention is a standard way of describing something so
that others in the profession can understand.
• Mathematically current ‘i’ and charge ‘q’ are related by :-
i = dq / dt where current ‘i’ is measured in
amperes (A)
So 1 ampere = 1 coulomb / second

 Current 13

• We now consider the flow of electric charges. A unique

feature of electric charge or electricity is the fact that it is
mobile; that is, it can be transferred from one place to
another, where it can be converted to another form of
energy.


 Current 14

• The current present in a discrete path, such as a metallic wire,

has both a numerical value and a direction associated with it; it is
a measure of the rate at which charge is moving past a given
reference point in a specified direction.
• Let q(t) be the total charge that has passed the reference point
since an arbitrary time t = 0, moving in the defined direction.
• As an example, Fig. 2.2 shows a history of the total charge q(t)
that has passed a given reference point in a wire
 15
Current
• Using Eq. [1], we compute the instantaneous current and
obtain Fig. 2.3. The charge transferred between time t0 and t
may be expressed as a definite integral:


 16
Example : Charge & Current
• The charge flowing in a wire is plotted as follows; sketch the
corresponding current.

q (C)

50

2 4 6 8 t (s)

- 50

• Notes: At t = 1 sec the charge q(1) is measured as 25 coulomb. So

between 0 sec and 1 sec the charge flow is 25 coulomb in 1 sec;
hence current i(1) = 25 A.
– Again at t = 7 sec the charge is q(7) = - 25 A. From q(6) of – 50 A the
change is final value – initial value that is – 25 – (- 50) = 25 so i(7) = 25 A.

• …contd.


 17
Example : Charge & Current ….contd
q (C)

50

2 4 6 8 t (s)

- 50

i (A)

25

2 4 6 8 t (s)

- 25


 18
Current
• We create a graphical symbol for current by placing an
arrow next to the conductor.
• In Fig. 2.5a, the direction of the arrow and the value 3A
indicate either that a net positive charge of 3 C/s is
moving to the right or that a net negative charge of −3 C/s
is moving to the left each second.
• In Fig. 2.5b, there are again two possibilities: either −3A is
flowing to the left or +3A is flowing to the right.

• A nonelectrical analogy : e.g., a deposit can be viewed as

either a negative cash flow out of your account or a
positive flow into your account.

 19

• It is essential that we realize that the current arrow does

not indicate the “actual” direction of current flow but is
simply part of a convention that allows us to talk about
“the current in the wire” in an unambiguous manner.
• The arrow is a fundamental part of the definition of a
current! Thus, to talk about the value of a current i1(t)
without specifying the arrow is to discuss an undefined
entity. For example, Fig. 2.6 a and b are meaningless
representations of i1(t), whereas Fig. 2.6c is complete.


 20

AC & DC Current
• A unidirectional current is called dc or direct current.
• Alternating current (ac) is current that changes direction
cyclically.

I i

t t

• Exponential and damped sinusoid currents!!

• Voltage !


 21
Voltage
• To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction
requires some work or energy transfer.
• This work is performed by an external electromotive force
(emf), typically represented by the battery.
• This emf is also known as voltage or potential difference.
The voltage vab between two points a and b in an electric
circuit is the energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge
from a to b; mathematically,
• Mathematically, the relationship is :-
vab = dw / dq where ‘w’ is energy in joules (J) & ‘q’ is
charge in coulombs.

So 1 volt = 1 joule / coulomb


 Voltage 22

• The vab can be interpreted in two ways:

• (1) point a is at a potential of vab volts higher than point b, or
• (2) the potential at point a with respect to point b is vab .
It follows logically that in general
Vab = - Vba

• In Fig. 2.9a, for example, the placement of the + sign at terminal A

indicates that terminal A is v volts +ve with respect to terminal B. If
we later find that v happens to have a numerical value of −5 V, then
we may say either that A is −5 V positive with respect to B or that B
is +5 V positive with respect to A. Other cases are shown in Fig.
2.9b, c, and d.

• …. contd.

 23
Voltage…contd
• It is essential to realize that the plus-minus pair of algebraic
signs does not indicate the “actual” polarity of the voltage but is
simply part of a convention that enables us to talk
unambiguously about “the voltage across the terminal pair.”

• The definition of any voltage must include a plus-minus sign pair

Using a quantity v1(t) without specifying the location of the plus-
minus sign pair is using an undefined term. Figure 2.10a and b do
not serve as definitions of v1(t); Fig. 2.10c does.

• Any question !

 24

He who asks a question

is a fool for five minutes; he
who does not ask a question
remains a fool forever.
(Chinese proverb)


 Power 25
• Current and voltage are the two basic variables in an electric circuit, they
are not sufficient by themselves. For practical purposes, we need to know
how much power an electric device can handle. We all know from
experience that a 100-watt bulb gives more light than a 60-watt bulb.
We also know that when we pay our bills to the electric utility companies,
we are paying for the electric energy consumed over a certain period of
time. Thus, power and energy calculations are important in circuit
analysis.
• Power is defined as the rate at which work is done or energy is
expended.
• It is expressed in watts (W). Power is one watt if one joule of energy
is expended in transferring one coulomb of charge through the
device in one second.

• Mathematically, the relationship is :- p = dw / dt

where ‘p’ is power in watts (W), ‘w’ is energy in joules (J) & ‘t’ is
time in seconds.
• Also p = dw / dt = dw / dq X dq / dt = vi

 Power 26

• The absorbed power must be proportional both to the number

of coulombs transferred per second (current) and to the
energy needed to transfer one coulomb through the element
(voltage).
• The conventions for current, voltage, and power are shown in
Fig. 2.12.

• Thus, the power absorbed or supplied by an element is the

product of the voltage across the element and the current through
it. If the power has a +ve sign, power is being delivered to or
absorbed by the element. If, on the other hand, the power has a
-ve sign, power is being supplied by the element.

 27
Passive Sign Convention
• The passive sign convention is satisfied 3A
when the current arrow is directed into the +
element at the plus-marked terminal.
• It says that if the current arrow and the 5V 15 w
voltage polarity signs are placed such that (absorbed)

the current enters that end of the element _

marked with the positive sign, then the _
power absorbed can be expressed by the
product of the specified current and
voltage variables. -5V 15 w
– If the numerical value of the product is -3A (absorbed)

negative, then we say that the element +

is absorbing negative power, or that it
is actually generating power and +
-3A
delivering it to some external element. 5V -15 w
• In the first case the +ve terminal is at (absorbed)

5 volts wrt the other terminal. _

• In the second case the +ve terminal
is at – 5 volts wrt the other terminal. 
Example : Power 28


PRACTICE : Power 29

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 30
Example : Power
• How much energy does a 100 - watt electric bulb consume in two
hours?

We know p = dw / dt where w is in joules and t in seconds.

• So 100 = w (joules) / (2X60X60)
• Hence w = 720 k joules.

Also pdt = dw
• So watt X sec = joules
• Or watt X 3600 X sec = joules X 3600
• Hence 1watt-hour = 3600 joules
• And 200 watt - hr = 720 k joules (watt-hr is the unit used by electrical
companies)

The Circuit Elements !


Thanks