UNIT III

Linear Beam Tubes

 Contents

Linear beam Tubes: Limitations and losses of conventional tubes at

microwave frequencies, Classification of Microwave tubes, O type
tubes - 2 cavity klystrons-structure, Reentrant cavities, velocity
modulation process and Applegate diagram, bunching process and
small signal theory Expressions for o/p power and efficiency, Reflex
Klystrons-structure, Velocity Modulation, Applegate diagram,
mathematical theory of bunching, power output, efficiency.
 Introduction

● At microwave frequencies, the size of electronic devices required for generation

of microwave energy becomes smaller and smaller.

● Smaller devices results in lesser power handling capability and increased noise
levels.

● So, at microwave frequencies, the microwave tubes are used because they can
provide higher output powers, lesser noise, better reliability with reduced output
power levels.

● Conventional triodes, tetrodes and pentodes are used at low microwave

frequencies.

● Special tubes would be required at UHF frequencies as conventional tubes have

certain limitations.
 Introduction

● Filament heats up from applied

a.c. or d.c. and causes cathode to
emit the electron

● Anode plate is charged to a high

positive d.c. and attracts the
electrons emitted by the cathode.

● Due to flow of electrons, the plate

current generated and amplified
output is produced across the
load.

● Grid is used to control the flow of

electrons. Functional schematic diagram of
vacuum tube triode
 Limitations of Conventional Tubes

Because of the following effects conventional devices cannot be used for frequencies
greater than 100MHz.

● Inter electrode capacitance effect

● Lead inductance effect

● Transit time effect

● Gain bandwidth limitation

● Effects due to RF losses ( Conductance/Skin depth or losses and the

dielectric losses)
● Effect due to radiation losses
 Inter Electrode Capacitance (IEC) Effect

● As the frequency increases, the reactance

decreases and the output voltage decreases.
● Because at higher frequencies becomes almost
short.
● , and are the IEC’s which come into effect.
● The effect of IEC can be minimised by reducing
the IEC’s , and .
● These can be reduced by decreasing the area of
the electrodes (since ) or by increasing the
distance between electrodes.
Inter Electrode Capacitance (IEC) Effect
 Lead Inductance Effect

● As the frequency increases, the reactance increases and hence the

voltages appearing at the active electrodes are less than the voltages at
the base pins.
● This results in reduced gain for the tube amplifier.
● , and are the lead inductances that limit the performance of the tube.
● The effect of LI can be minimised by decreasing L, since L is proportional
to reactance (L)
● L can be decreased by using larger sized short leads without base pins
i.e., by increasing ‘A’ and by decreasing ‘l’
● However reduces the power handling capability.
 Transit Time Effect

● Transit time is the time taken for the electron to travel from cathode to
anode.
Transit time =
d = distance between anode and cathode
= velocity of electrons
Static energy of electrons=eV
Under equilibrium, Static energy=Kinetic energy
 Transit Time Effect

● At low frequencies, the transit time effect is negligible because the

distance between the anode and cathode is very small.

● At high frequencies the transit time is large as compared with the period
of the signal which is very small—nano seconds as shown in below fig.

● The grid potential during negative half cycle thus removes energy that
was given to the electron during the positive half cycle.

● The overall result of the transit time effects is to reduce the overall
efficiency of the vacuum tube.
 Transit Time Effect

Remedy for Transit Time Effect:

To minimize transit time (), the separation between electrode can be
decreased (but this increase the IEC) and the plate to cathode potential ‘V’
can be increased (This can not be increased indefinitely).
Therefore a trade off between IEC and transit time is must.
 Gain Bandwidth Limitation

Maximum gain is achieved when the tuned circuit is at resonance.

Transfer function

Applying Laplace transform to the parallel circuit

and replacing
 Gain Bandwidth Limitation

The roots of the characteristic equation (denominator) give the frequencies

The gain bandwidth

product is thus independent of
frequency. Higher gain for a given
tube can be achieved only by
using the narrow band width.

In microwave circuits the gain

bandwidth limitation can be
overcome by use of
• Re entrant cavities
• Slow wave tubes
 Effects Due to RF Losses

a) Skin effect losses (or Conductor or losses):

These losses come into play at higher frequencies at which the current
has the tendency to confine itself to a smaller cross section of the conductor
towards its outer surface.

is the effective area over which current flows

Hence losses will increase at higher

frequencies. These losses can be
reduced by increasing the size of the
i.e., f increases R conductors.
increases
 Effects Due to RF Losses

b) Dielectric losses:

 This occurs in various types of insulting materials used in the

device i.e., spacers, glass envelope, silicon or plastic
encapsulations etc.

 The loss in any of these materials is in general given by

 As f increases the power loss increases.

 The solution for this is to eliminate the tube base and to reduce the
surface area of glass.
 Radiation Losses

● Whenever the dimensions of the wire approaches the wavelength, it will

emit radiation.
● i.e., radiation losses increase with increase in frequency.
● The remedy for this is to use proper shielding of the tubes and its
circuitry.
 Microwave Tubes

● The basic principle of operation of the microwave tubes involves transfer of

power from a source of dc voltage to a source of ac voltage by means of a
current density modulated electron beam.
 Klystrons

● A klystron is a vacuum tube that can be used either as a generator or as

an amplifier at microwave frequencies.
● Invented by Russel H Varian & S.P Varian at Stanford University in 1939
● Types of Klystrons are
○ Two cavity Klystron Amplifier
○ Multicavity Klystron
○ Two Cavity Klystron Oscillator
○ Reflex Klystron
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier

● Two cavity klystron amplifier shown here is basically a velocity modulated

tube.
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier

● Here a high velocity electron

beam is formed and sent down
along a glass tube through the
input cavity (Buncher), a field
free drift space and an output
cavity (catcher) to a collector
electrode/anode.

● The input and output are taken

from the tube via resonant
cavities with the aid of coupling
loops.
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier

Operation:
● The RF signal to be amplified
is used for exciting the input
buncher cavity thereby
developing an alternating
voltage of signal frequency
across the gap A.
● Let us now consider the effect
of this gap voltage on the
electron beam passing
through gap A.
● This situation is best explained
by means of an Applegate
diagram.
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier

● At point B’ on the input RF cycle, the alternating voltage is zero and

going positive.
● At this instant, the electric field across gap A is zero and an electron
which passes through gap A at this instant is unaffected by the RF signal.
● Let this electron be called the reference electron which travels with an
unchanged velocity . Where V is the anode to cathode voltage.
● At point C’ of the input RF cycle an electron which leaves gap A later
than reference electron , called the late electron is subjected to
maximum positive RF voltage and hence travels towards gap B with an
increased velocity () and this electron tries to overtake the reference
electron .
● Similarly an early electron that passes the gap A’ slightly before the
reference electron is subjected to a maximum negative field.
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier

● Hence this early electron is decelerated and travels with reduced velocity
.
● This electron falls back and reference electron catches up with the early
electron.
● Therefore the velocity of the electron varies in accordance with RF input
voltage, resulting in velocity modulation of the electron beam.
● As a result of these actions, the electrons in the bunching limit (between
point A’ and C’) gradually bunch together as they travel down the drift
space, from gap A to gap B.
● The density of electrons passing the gap B vary cyclically with time, that
is the electron beam contains an ac current and is current modulated.
● The drift space converts the velocity modulation into current modulation.
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier

● Bunching occurs only once per cycle centered around the reference
electron.
● With proper design (optimum gap widths, anode to cathode voltage, drift
space length etc.), a little RF power applied to the buncher cavity results
in large beam currents at the catcher cavity with a considerable power
gain.
● Performance Characteristics:
• Frequency : 250 MHz to 100 GHz (60 GHz nominal).
• Power : 10kW - 500 kW (CW) 30 MW (Pulsed).
• Power gain : 15 dB - 70 dB (60 dB nominal).
• Bandwidth : 10 - 60 MHz
• Noise figure : 12 - 20 dB
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier

● Applications
1. As power output tubes
■ In UHF TV transmitters.
■ In troposphere scatter transmitters.
■ Satellite Communication ground stations.
■ Radar transmitters.
2. As power oscillator (5 - 50 GHz) if used as a klystron amplifier.
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier
Mathematical analysis of a klystron amplifier
Let the dc voltage between cathode and anode be and be the velocity
of the electron, L be the drift space length and the RF input signal to be
amplified by the klystron be
Then 1

where = amplitude of the signal and <<

The energy of the electron at the time of leaving buncher cavity is given by
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier

Expanding binomially and neglecting higher powers of we get

This is the equation of velocity modulation.

 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier

Where is the phase angle of the RF input voltage during which the electron is
accelerated (refer below fig)
4

Bunching Process of the Electron Beam;

Maximum velocity occurs at so that

Minimum velocity occurs at so that

6
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier
If the distance in the drift space at which the bunching occurs from the buncher
grid at time is (from below fig)
7

10

From Equation 5 to 10
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier
For maximum
value
11

If the distance has to be the same for , 0, + bunches, for all three
should be equal to

As is very high can be

neglected
Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier
Output Power () : At the catcher
cavity

Energy given by the electron to

the bunch
The average energy given to the RF
field in a cycle

In the field free space between cavities, the transit time for velocity modulated
electron is given by
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier
Multiplying by

The transit time without RF voltage in buncher

cavity
is the transit angle without RF voltage in the
buncher
Where N cavity
is the number of electron transit
cycles in drift space
The bunching parameter X of a klystron is defined by
the equation
Which is dimension less quantity and proportional to
input power
Now
Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier
 Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier
Input Power () :The input power is basically the dc input given by

The efficiency (ɳ) is given by

As is always less than , the maximum efficiency that can be attained is 0.58 or
58%. The typical value of gain for two cavity tubes is 10-20 dB.
 Multicavity Klystron
● A higher overall gain can be achieved by connecting several two cavity
tubes in cascade, feeding the output of each of the tubes to the input of
the succeeding one.
● Instead, multiple number of cavities can be used as in a multicavity
• Here, each of the intermediate
klystron.
cavities act as a buncher with the
passing electron beam inducing an
enhanced RF voltage than the
previous cavity.

• With the four cavities, power gains

of around 50dB can be easily
achieved.
 Two Cavity Klystron Oscillator

● A klystron amplifier can be converted into an oscillator by feeding back a

part of the catcher output into the buncher in proper phase.
● The schematic is same as klystron amplifier except that a feedback loop
needs to be added.
 Reflex Klystron

● The reflex klystron is a single cavity variable frequency microwave

generator of low power and low efficiency.
● This is most widely used in applications where variable frequency is
desired as
1. In radar receivers.
2. Local oscillator in microwave receivers
3. Signal source in microwave generator of variable frequency.
4. Portable microwave links.
5. Pump oscillator in parametric amplifier.
 Reflex Klystron
Construction
● It consists of an electron gun, a filament surrounded
by cathode and a focusing electrode at cathode
potential as shown in Fig.
● The electron beam is accelerated towards the anode
cavity (positive potential).
● After passing the gap in the cavity; electrons travel
towards a repeller electrode which is at a high
• The electrons never reach the repeller because of the negative field and are
negative potential VR.
returned back towards the gap.
• Under suitable conditions, the electrons give more energy to the gap than
they took from the gap on their forward journey and oscillators are
sustained.
 Reflex Klystron

● The RF voltage that is produced

across the gap by the cavity
oscillations act on the electron beam
to cause velocity modulation.
● eR is the reference electron that
passes through the gap when the gap
voltage is 0 and going negative.
● Electron eR is unaffected by the gap
voltage.
● This moves towards the repeller and
gets reflected by the negative voltage
on the repeller.
● It returns and passes through the gap
for a second time.
 Reflex Klystron

● The early electron ee that passes through the gap before the reference
electron eR experiences a max positive voltage across the gap and this
electron is accelerated.
● It moves with greater velocity and penetrates deep into repeller space.
● The return time for electron ee is greater as the depth of penetration into
the repeller space is more.
● Hence ee and eR appears at the gap for the second time at the same instant.
● The late electron el that passes the gap later than reference electron eR
experiences a maximum negative voltage and moves with a retarding
velocity.
● The return time is shorter as the penetration into repeller space is less and
catches up with eR and ee electrons forming a bunch.
 Reflex Klystron

● For oscillations to be sustained, the time taken by the electrons to travel into
the repeller space and back to the gap is called transit time.
● Returning of electrons after 1 or 2 or 3 cycles etc.
● In general, the optimum transit time should be

T=n+
Where n is any integer.
 Reflex Klystron

Operating Characteristics

1. Voltage Characteristics:
● Oscillations can be obtained only for specific
combinations of anode and repeller voltages that
give a favorable transit time (T=n+ )
● The earlier the mode the larger the output power.

● But the voltages required are also higher as shown

in fig leading to insulation problems and the
possibilities of lower efficiencies.
● As a results the modes corresponding to n=2 or
n=3 are mostly widely used.
 Reflex Klystron

2. Power output and frequency

characteristics:
● The frequency of resonance of the
cavity decides the frequency of
oscillation.
● Variations of repeller voltage slightly
changes the frequency.
● This makes it possible to use reflex
klystron as a voltage tuned oscillator or
frequency modulated oscillator.
 Reflex Klystron (Mathematical Analysis)

Consider this figure for the mathematical analysis of reflex klystron

= electron gun anode voltage
= RF voltage at cavity gap
= Repeller voltage with respect to cathode
S = distance between cavity gap and repeller electrode
= velocity of electron in gun
= velocity due to RF voltage in addition to the electron accelerating voltage .
= time for electron entering cavity gap at x=0
= time for same electron leaving cavity gap at x=d
= time for same electron returned by retarding field at x=d
 Reflex Klystron (Mathematical Analysis)

Voltage between repeller

and anode
Retarding electrostatic field between repeller and anode is
given by
1
Force on
electron =
Also, force on electron = mass * acceleration = 2
 Reflex Klystron (Mathematical Analysis)
integrating 3
once

Substituting ‘C’ 3
in eq
4
integrating
again
At x=0 i.e., at the point of return from repeller space
 Reflex Klystron (Mathematical Analysis)

Using the value of in eq

4
 Reflex Klystron (Mathematical Analysis)
We know
that

Let 6

Where is the roundtrip dc transit angle of center of bunch electron

Let where is the bunching

parameter
 Reflex Klystron (Mathematical Analysis)
Substituting in 5
eq
7

Relation between Repeller Voltage and Accelerating voltage

• W K T center of bunch electrons is unaffected by the RF voltage when

• For maximum transfer of energy, the modes are 1 cycles apart

 Reflex Klystron (Mathematical Analysis)
From eq6

We know
that
 Reflex Klystron (Mathematical Analysis)
Expression for change in frequency due to repeller voltage variation
electronic tuning of reflex klystron
 Reflex Klystron (Mathematical Analysis)
Efficiency of Reflex klystron

• It is the ratio between the maximum power transferred to the output of klystron to the power input to the klystron.
𝑃 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
ɳ=
𝑃 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
• DC power supplied by the beam voltage is

• AC power delivered

• As the current flows in the negative direction, the negative sign becomes positive and is 1 and is being
single and same cavity.
 Reflex Klystron (Mathematical Analysis)

The factor reaches a maximum value of 1.252 at

 Reflex Klystron (Mathematical Analysis)
Power output in terms of repeller
voltage
 Reflex Klystron (Mathematical Analysis)
Performance characteristics of
reflex klystron
1. Frequency Range : 4 to 200 GHz
2. Output Power : 1.0 mW to 2.5 W
3. Theoretical ɳ : 22.78%
4. Practical ɳ : 10% to 20%
5. Tuning Range : 5 GHz at 2 watts and 30 GHz at 10 mW.