ULTRASONIC TESTING

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 STANDARD PULSE ECHO
EQUIPMENT

PULSE ECHO

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 PULSE GENERATOR
• The pulse generator produces the initial
pulse or “main bang”.
• It pulses at regular intervals, from a few
hundred to perhaps as many as 5000
pulses per second.
• The rate at which pulses are produced is
called the “PULSE REPEAT FREQUENCY”.
• Each pulse is a voltage spike of usually
less than 400V.
• Voltage spikes exceeding 1,000V may be
used for special applications.

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 PULSE GENERATOR
• Each pulse has a very short rise
time.
• Each pulse is usually a single direct
voltage spike.
• The duration of each electrical
pulse is usually less than 0.05 s.
• Alternating voltage spikes may be
used for special applications,
especially where long duration
pulses are required.

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 PULSE GENERATOR

• The pulse acts on the piezo electric

crystal with an action analogous to
the action of a hammer hitting a
bell.
• IN STANDARD PULSE ECHO TESTING
THE VOLTAGE PULSE AND THE
PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY
HAVE NO EFFECT WHATSOEVER ON
TEST FREQUENCY.

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 PULSE REPETITION
FREQUENCY
• PRF is usually around 1,000 Hz, but may
be as low as 100 Hz or as high as 5,000
Hz.
• Low PRF is required when testing a large
thickness of low attenuation material.
• In modern digital equipment the PRF can
usually be selected by the operator.
• In older types of portable equipment the
PRF is often linked to the range control.
• If PRF is set too high “ghost echoes” will
result.

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 AMPLIFICATION-RECTIFICATION
• Signals received from the transducer
are in the form of alternating voltage
spikes.
• The received voltage is generally in
the millivolt range.
• Received signals are generally
rectified and amplified prior to being
transmitted to the display screen.
• A calibrated gain control is provided in
order that the height of displayed
signals can be adjusted.
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 DISPLAY (A-SCAN)

• In standard A-scan display the

displayed height of a received
signal is proportional to the
received signal voltage.
• Echo height is sometimes referred
to as signal amplitude.
• The received signal voltage is
proportional to the received sound
pressure or intensity.

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 GAIN CONTROL - DECIBELS
• The gain control is invariably calibrated
in “decibels”, usually with steps of 2 dB
or less over a range of 80 to 120 dB.
• The decibel is a logarithmic unit of
comparison. It is not an absolute unit.

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 DECIBELS

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 USEFUL dB VALUES

• 1.25: 1 = 2dB 80%  100%

• 2 : 1= 6dB 50%  100%
• 3.1:1 = 10dB 32%  100%
• 4 : 1= 12dB 25%  100%
• 5 : 1= 14dB 20%  100%
• 10 : 1 = 20dB 10%  100%
• 100 : 1 = 40dB 1%  100%

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 SWEEP GENERATOR
• The sweep or timebase generator is
triggered via the delay control by
the pulse generator.
• It causes the trace to sweep across
the horizontal axis of the display at
a constant rate.
• The sweep rate is adjusted using
the range control.
• The delay control controls the time
at which the sweep starts.

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 BROADBAND / NARROWBAND
• Most older type portable ultrasonic
instruments are broadband.
• Modern portable and more sophisticated
instruments can generally be set for use
as either broad or narrow band.
• In broadband mode the instrument is
sensitive over a wide range of input
frequencies.
• In narrowband mode the instrument is
tuned to the transducer frequency and
signals of other frequencies are filtered
out.
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 BROADBAND / NARROWBAND

• In broadband mode the “shape” of

echo signals is preserved - this can
help for interpretation - but signal
to noise ratio may be low.
• Narrowband improves signal to
noise ratio but the displayed shape
of echo signals does not lend itself
so well towards interpretation as is
the case with broadband.

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 TRANSDUCERS
• Four devices exist which are capable of
transforming electrical energy to
sound and vice versa:

• Piezo electric devices

• Magnetostrictive devices
• Electromechanical devices
• Lasers

• Of these by far the most widely used

are piezo electric devices.
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 MAGNETOSTRICTION
• An alternating magnetic field can be used to
generate and receive ultrasound in a magnetic
material.
• Magnetostrictive devices are useful only for
magnetic materials such as ferritic steel.
• They require no couplant and frequently a much
lesser degree surface preparation than would be
the case if a piezo electric device was used.
• Magnetostrictive devices are sometimes used in
power boilers to measure wall thickness and to
detect hydrogen cracking.
• Magnetostrictive probes are frequently referred
to as “EMATs” - ElectroMagnetic Acoustic
Transducers
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 ELECTRO-MECHANICAL
DEVICES
• In an electromechanical transducer an
alternating current is passed through a
coil which is enclosed in a permanent
magnetic field, causing the coil to
vibrate.
• Conversely, if the coil vibrates an
alternating electric current is produced.
• Such devices are not useful in modern
day ultrasonic testing but they have
been used to perform transmission tests
and for submarine detection.
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 LASERS

• Recently it has been possible to

generate and to detect ultrasonic
vibrations by means of lasers.
• These are non-contact devices
which can operate at a good
distance from the test object.
• They have begun to see some
application in the thickness
measurement of large storage
tanks.

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 PIEZO ELECTRIC EFFECT
• The piezo electric effect has been
known since around 1880 when it was
first investigated by Jacques-Paul &
Pierre Curie.
• Piezo electric transducers first saw
application in pulse echo ultrasonic
testing during the 1940s.
• The discovery of piezo electric ceramic
materials in the 1950s permitted the
development of modern pulse-echo
ultrasonic testing.
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 PIEZO ELECTRIC EFFECT
• Piezo electric materials produce an
alternating electric current when
placed under vibrational stress.
• Conversely they will vibrate when an
alternating electric current is passed
through them.
• If a piezo electric crystal is subjected
to a voltage spike it will “ring” at its
own natural frequency in exactly the
same way that a bell will ring if struck
by a hammer.
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 PIEZO ELECTRIC EFFECT
• Most piezo electric crystals are cut in such
a way that they will produce a
compression wave when excited.
• Virtually all modern commercially available
transducers employ a crystal element that
produces a compression wave.
• Shear waves are generated by mode
conversion at an interface.
• Piezo electric crystals can, however, be cut
such that a shear wave is produced
directly.

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 PIEZO ELECTRIC MATERIALS
• QUARTZ:

• Naturally occurring
• High critical temperature 576C
• Chemically very stable
• Very poor transmitter
• Moderate receiver
• Does not age

NOT USED IN MODERN DAY UT

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 PIEZO ELECTRIC MATERIALS
• Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT 5):

• Man made polarised polycrystalline

ceramic
• Critical temperature  200C
• Chemically stable
• Very good transmitter
• Good receiver

THE MOST COMMON PIEZO ELECTRIC

MATERIAL IN MODERN DAY UT
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 PIEZO ELECTRIC MATERIALS
• Barium Titanate (BaTi):

• Man made polarized polycrystalline

ceramic
• Critical temperature  120C
• Chemically very stable
• Moderate transmitter
• Very poor receiver

SOMETIMES USED IN MODERN DAY UT

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 PIEZO ELECTRIC MATERIALS
• Lead Metaniobate (PMN):

• Man made polarized polycrystalline

ceramic
• High critical temperature 550C
• Chemically very stable
• Good transmitter
• Very poor receiver

QUITE COMMON IN MODERN DAY UT

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 PIEZO ELECTRIC MATERIALS
• Lithium Sulphate Hydrate (LSH):

• Man made single crystal

• Low critical temperature 75C
• Water soluble
• Poor transmitter
• The best receiver

SELDOM USED IN MODERN DAY UT

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 PIEZO ELECTRIC MATERIALS
• Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF):

• Man made polymer material

• Critical temperature  170C
• Flexible polymer
• Moderate transmitter
• Very good receiver

INCREASINGLY USED IN MODERN DAY UT

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 SINGLE CRYSTAL COMPRESSION
PROBE
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION

METAL
CASING

RUBBER FILL
MATERIAL

TUNGSTE
N
FRONT OF ARALDITE
CRYSTAL CRYSTAL
EARTHED TO CERAMIC PROTECTOR
CASING OIL

RUBBER
MEMBRANE

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 ELECTRICAL CONNECTION

TWIN
CRYSTAL
COMPRESSIO RUBBER FILL MATERIAL

N PROBE
TUNGSTEN ARALDITE

CRYSTAL

RESIN CASE

PERSPEX SHOE

CORK BARRIER
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 ANGLE PROBE
RUBBER FILL
MATERIAL

METAL CASE
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION

TUNGSTEN ARALDITE

CRYSTAL

PERSPEX SHOE SHAPED TO

DISPERSE / ABSORB INTERNAL
REFLECTIONS
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 TRANSDUCER PROPERTIES

• DIAMETER
• FREQUENCY
• PULSE LENGTH
• QUALITY FACTOR
• BEAM ANGLE

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 CRYSTAL ELEMENT DIAMETER
Large diameter crystals produce
1 better penetrating power
2 tighter beam spread
3 shorter pulse length
4 better resolution
Large diameter crystals:
1 suffer from long near zone
2 are unsuitable for contact testing of
test objects such as girth welds in
pipe
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 TRANSDUCER FREQUENCY

• The crystal thickness controls

transducer frequency.
• The crystal vibrates at its resonant
frequency.
• The resonant frequency has a
wavelength in the crystal equal to
twice the crystal thickness.

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 TRANSDUCER FREQUENCY
High frequency probes:
1 Have a tighter beam spread.
2 Have a shorter pulse length.
3 Have better resolution.
4 Can detect smaller reflectors (minimum
size = /2).
High frequency probes:
1 Have a longer near zone.
2 Have poor penetrating power.
3 Are more affected by reflector
orientation
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 TRANSDUCER FREQUENCY
Low frequency probes:
1 Have a shorter near zone.
2 Have better penetrating power.
3 Are less affected by reflector
orientation.
Low frequency probes:
1 Have inferior sensitivity to small
reflectors.
2 Have longer pulse length.
3 Have inferior resolution.

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 PULSE LENGTH
• In pulse echo ultrasonic testing it is
usually desirable to have a short pulse
length - this produces better resolution.
• A longer pulse length has superior
penetrating power.
• Pulse length is mainly controlled by
damping - both mechanical and
electrical.
• The shape and amplitude of the
excitation pulse also affect pulse length

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 PULSE LENGTH - DAMPING

• The action of damping on a piezo

electric crystal is similar to the way in
which a shock absorber works in a car
suspension.
• Mechanical damping is provided by
backing materials such as tungsten
araldite and rubber.
• Electrical damping is provided by the
flawdetector.

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 PULSE LENGTH

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 PULSE LENGTH
• BROADBAND transducers are well damped
and provide the BEST RESOLUTION.
• Broadband transducers are ideal for the
pulse-echo testing of welds.
• NARROW-BAND transducers are lightly
damped, have a long RING TIME and
therefore poor resolution.
• Narrow-band transducers resonate
strongly and can be useful for
applications such as acoustic emission
testing.

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 QUALITY FACTOR (Q)

• Q is a measure of the frequency

selectivity of a probe, a flawdetector
or of a combination of both.

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 BEAM ANGLE

• Angle beams are usually produced by

refraction / mode conversion.
• Angle beam contact probes are
marked with their refracted angle in
ferritic steel.
• The refracted angle will change if the
probe is used on a material other than
ferritic steel.

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 BEAM ANGLE

• PERSPEX or PLEXIGLASS is used for

the shoes of angle beam contact
probes.
• This material is chosen because it
has a reasonably high acoustic
impedance and because only
compression waves can exist in it -
• It is a solid which in many respects
behaves more like a liquid.

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 Refracted Angle / Degrees
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

0
Angled

10
Compression CO
MP
RE
Probes

20
SS

SH
IO
N

EA

Wedge Angle / Degrees

R
1 st Critical Angle

30
Creeping Wave Probes 27.37 0

40
Shear Wave

50
Angle Probes

60
2nd Critical Angle
Surface Wave Probes

70
57.74 0

ANGLE PROBE MANUFACTURE

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 BEAM ANGLE

At a wedge angle of 25º Shear (29º) &

Comp. (65º ) waves are produced in the steel
with roughly equal sound pressure

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 BEAM ANGLE

At a wedge angle of 57º Shear (81º) &

Surface waves are produced in the steel with
roughly equal sound pressure

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 COUPLANT
• A COUPLANT is used in contact ultrasonic
testing to reduce reflection at the sound
entry surface.
• This is because at an air-steel interface
99.96% of the incident sound energy is
reflected.
• For immersion testing no couplant as such
is required, the water itself acts as a
couplant.
• Reflection at a water-steel interface is
around 88.09% of the incident sound
energy
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 COUPLANT PROPERTIES
• Wetability
• Viscous, but not too viscous
• Non-corrosive
• Non-toxic
• Non-irritant
• Evaporates slowly
• Acoustic impedance higher than water
(= 1.48 X 106 kgm-2 s-1).
• Acoustic impedance ideally equal to that
of perspex (= 3.2 X 106 kgm-2 s-1).

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 ACOUSTIC LENSES

• Sound beams can be focused using

an acoustic lens or by the use of a
curved crystal element.
• In immersion testing plano-concave
lenses are frequently used.

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 ACOUSTIC LENSES

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 ACOUSTIC LENSES

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 ACOUSTIC LENSES

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 ACOUSTIC LENSES

• Acoustic lenses are typically made

from plastic materials such as
epoxy, polystyrene or perspex.
• Focusing a sound beam increases
the signal to noise ratio.
• Focused sound beams are useful
for inspecting the bond-line
between two materials, for
example a composite material
bonded to aluminium.

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 PHASED ARRAYS or MOSAICS
• Beam focusing and many other effects
can be achieved using a phased array-
• A probe containing numerous crystal
elements which can be fired in a chosen
order so as to produce a desired focusing
or angulation effect.
• Phased arrays were first used for medical
applications but recently they have been
applied in the field of industry.
• Many welded pipelines are these days
inspected using phased array
technology.
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 A-SCAN, B-SCAN, C-SCAN
• The usual form of display for manual
pulse-echo testing is A-scan. In A-
scan display time or sound path
distance is displayed on the x-axis
while signal amplitude is displayed on
the y-axis.
• “GATED” UT equipment can be used,
in conjunction with a probe
manipulation device and a computer,
to assemble data in the form of a “B”
or “C” scan.

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 C-SCAN
• On a C-scan display signals received in
the gate are plotted on a chart which
shows probe movement in two
directions.
• The C-scan is effectively a plan view
showing the areas where gated signals
have been received.
• The position and the signal amplitude in
the gate are not recorded in simple older
type systems but this information is
often available when using more modern
equipment.
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 B-SCAN
• Using B-scan equipment the range to a
gated echo is plotted on one axis while
probe movement in a single direction is
recorded on the other axis.
• A raw B-scan plot provides a crude
cross-sectional view of a reflector.
• Modern B-scan equipment will usually
record signal amplitude (often by
colour coding) and may record probe
movement in two directions rather
than only one.
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 P-SCAN

• Automated ultrasonic systems

which assemble A, B and C-scan
data to provide a 3 dimensional
acoustic image of a reflector are
called P-scan.
• P-scan is the acronym for
“PROJECTION SCAN”.

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 DISPLAYED VOLTAGE FALLS AS SOUND
WAVES ARE REFLECTED AWAY FROM
THE RECEIVER BY THE INTERNAL
DEFECTS

VOLTMETER
R T

ELECTRICAL
AMPLIFIER SUPPLY

TRANSMISSION TESTING
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