Fuel Cell Electric

Vehicles
 Operating principle of Fuel Cell
• A fuel cell operates on the principle of converting chemical energy directly into electrical energy through
an electrochemical reaction. Unlike conventional batteries, which store energy and must be recharged
periodically, fuel cells can produce electricity continuously as long as they are supplied with fuel and an
oxidizing agent (usually oxygen from the air).
• Fuel Input: Fuel cells use hydrogen (H2) as the primary fuel source, although some types of fuel cells can
also use other fuels such as methane (CH4), methanol (CH3OH), or even hydrocarbons like natural gas.
The fuel is typically stored in a tank and supplied to the fuel cell as needed.
• Oxidizer Input: Oxygen (O2) from the air serves as the oxidizer in most fuel cell systems. Unlike fuel,
which needs to be stored, oxygen is drawn from the surrounding air, making the system lighter and more
compact compared to traditional batteries.
• Electrochemical Reaction: Inside the fuel cell, the hydrogen molecules are split into protons (H+) and
electrons (e-) at the anode (the negative electrode). This process is facilitated by a catalyst, usually
platinum, which speeds up the reaction without being consumed itself:

• The released electrons flow through an external circuit, creating an electric current that can power
electrical devices.
• Ion Exchange: The positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) move through an electrolyte
material to the cathode (the positive electrode) of the fuel cell. Meanwhile, the electrons travel
through an external circuit to reach the cathode, creating an electrical current that can be used
to power electrical devices.
• Recombination: At the cathode, the protons, electrons, and oxygen molecules combine to form
water (H2O), which is the only byproduct of the reaction:
• +
• Electricity Generation: The flow of electrons through the external circuit generates electricity
that can be used to power various devices, such as electric motors, lights, or other electronic
equipment.
• Heat Generation (optional): In addition to electricity, fuel cells also produce heat as a
byproduct of the electrochemical reaction. This heat can be harnessed and utilized for heating
purposes, making fuel cells more efficient in combined heat and power (CHP) applications.
Fuel Cell Technologies
Proton Exchange Membrane
Fuel Cell
• Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell:
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) are a type of fuel cell that operates at relatively low
temperatures, typically around 80°C.
They are commonly used in transportation applications such as cars, buses, and forklifts, as well as in
stationary power generation and portable power systems.
• Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM): The heart of the PEMFC is the proton exchange membrane,
often made of a polymer such as Nafion. This membrane selectively allows protons to pass
through while blocking electrons, thus creating an electrical potential across the cell.
• Anode: Hydrogen fuel is supplied to the anode side of the fuel cell, where it is oxidized to release
protons and electrons. The protons travel through the PEM to the cathode, while the electrons are
forced to travel through an external circuit, generating electric current.
• Cathode: Oxygen from the air is supplied to the cathode, where it combines with protons that
have passed through the PEM and electrons from the external circuit to form water as a
byproduct.
• Electrodes: The anode and cathode contain catalysts, typically platinum or platinum alloys, which
facilitate the chemical reactions that occur at each electrode.
• Bipolar Plates: These plates distribute reactants (hydrogen and oxygen) and provide electrical
connections between individual cells in a stack. They also help remove excess water produced
during the electrochemical reaction.
PEMFCs offer several advantages:
• High power density and efficiency: PEMFCs can provide high power output per unit weight and
volume, making them suitable for transportation applications.
• Fast start-up and response times: PEMFCs can start up quickly and respond rapidly to changes in
electrical demand.
• Low operating temperature: Operating at relatively low temperatures allows for compact and
lightweight system designs.
• Zero emissions (when using hydrogen as fuel): PEMFCs produce only water and heat as
byproducts when hydrogen is used as the fuel, making them environmentally friendly.
Alkaline Fuel Cell
• Alkaline Fuel Cell:
In Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs), the electrolyte used is a concentrated alkaline solution, typically potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium
hydroxide (NaOH). This alkaline electrolyte is dissolved in water to form an electrolyte solution
• AFCs use an solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) as the electrolyte to conduct ions between electrodes. Potassium hydroxide is
alkaline Because the electrolyte is alkaline, the ion conduction mechanism is different from PEMFCs. The ion carried by the alkaline
electrolyte is a hydroxide ion.
• Unlike in acidic fuel cells, water is formed on the hydrogen electrode. In addition, water is needed at the cathode by oxygen
reduction. Water management becomes an issue that is sometimes resolved by making the electrodes waterproof and keeping the
water in the electrolyte. The cathode reaction consumes water from the electrolyte where as the anode reaction rejects its product
water. The excess water (2°mol per reaction) is evaporated outside the stack.
• AFCs are capable of operating over a wide range of temperatures (from 80°C to 230°C) pressures (from 2.2 to 45 atm).
• High-temperature AFCs also make use of a highly concentrated electrolyte, so highly concentrated that the ion transport
mechanism changes from aqueous solution to molten salt.
• AFCs are capable of achieving very high efficiencies because of the fast kinetics allowed by the hydroxide electrolyte. The oxygen
reaction (O₂→ OH) in particular is easier than the oxygen reduction in acidic fuel cells.
• As a result, the activation losses are very low. The fast kinetics in AFCs allows using silver or nickel as catalysts instead of platinum.
The cost of the fuel cell stack is thus greatly reduced. AFC kinetics is further improved by the eventual circulation of the electrolyte.
• When the electrolyte is circulated, the fuel cell is said to be a "mobile electrolyte fuel cell." The advantages of such an architecture
are as follows: a easy thermal management because the electrolyte is used as coolant; more homogeneous electrolyte
concentration, which solves problems of concentration around the cathode; the possibility of using the electrolyte for water
management; the possibility of replacing the electrolyte if it has been too polluted by carbon dioxide; and, finally, the possibility of
removing the electrolyte from the fuel cell when it is turned off, which has the potential to greatly lengthen the lifetime of the
stack.
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
• Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell:
• The electrolyte used in Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) is phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
• PAFCs rely on an acidic electrolyte, like PEMFCs, to conduct hydrogen ions. The anode and cathode reactions are the same as
the PEMFC reactions, Phosphoric is a viscous liquid that is contained by capillarity in the fuel cell in a porous silicon carbide
matrix.
• PAFC was the first fuel cell technology to be marketed. Many hospitals, hotels, and military bases make use of a PAFC to cover
part or the totality of their electricity and heat requirements.
• Very little work has been done to apply this technology to vehicles, probably because of temperature problems. The
phosphoric acid electrolyte temperature must be kept above 42°C.which is its freezing point. Freezing and rethawing the acid
unacceptably stresses the stack.
• Keeping the stack above this temperature requires extra hardware, which adds to the cost, complexity, weight, and volume.
Most of these issues are minor in the case of a stationary application, but are incompatible with a vehicular application.
Another problem arising from the high operating temperature (above 150°C) is the energy consumption associated with
warming up the stack.
• Every time the fuel cell is started, some energy (i.e., fuel) must be spent to heat it up to operating temperature, and every
time the fuel cell is turned off, the heat (i.e., energy) is wasted.
• The loss is significant for short travel times, which usually occurs during city driving. However, this issue seems to be minor in
the case of mass transportation such as buses.
• The advantages of PAFCs are that they require a cheap electrolyte, a low operating temperature, and a reasonable start-up
time. The disadvantages are the expensive catalyst (platinum), corrosion by acidic electrolyte, CO poisoning, and low efficiency.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell:
• MCFCs are high-temperature fuel cells (500-800°C). They rely on a molten carbonate salt to conduct
ions, usually lithium-potassium carbonate or Lithium-sodium carbonate. The ions conducted are
carbonate ions (CO).
• The ion conduction mechanism is that of a molten salt like in PAFCs or highly concentrated AFCs.
• The major difference from other fuel cells is the necessity of providing carbon dioxide at the
cathode.
• It is not necessary to have an external source since it can be recycled from the anode.
• MCFCs are never used with pure hydrogen but rather with hydrocarbons. Indeed, the major
advantage of high-temperature fuel cells is their capability to, almost, directly process hydrocarbon
fuels because the high temperature allows their decomposition to hydrogen on the electrodes.
• This would be a tremendous advantage for automotive applications because of the present
availability of hydrocarbon fuels. In addition, the high temperatures enhance the kinetics to the
point that cheap catalysts may be used.In Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs), the electrolyte used
is typically a mixture of lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) and potassium carbonate (K2CO3). This mixture
remains in a molten state at the high operating temperatures of MCFCs, typically in the range of
650°C to 1,000°C
• Operating Principle: MCFCs generate electricity through an electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and
oxygen. The electrolyte in MCFCs is typically a mixture of lithium carbonate and potassium carbonate, which
remains in a molten state at high temperatures, typically around 650°C to 1,000°C. This high operating
temperature allows for efficient ion transport and electrode kinetics.
• Fuel Flexibility: MCFCs can utilize a variety of fuels, including hydrogen, natural gas, biogas, and methane. The
fuel is typically fed into the anode chamber, where it undergoes reforming or other pre-processing steps to
generate hydrogen or a hydrogen-rich gas mixture suitable for use in the fuel cell.
• High Efficiency: MCFCs offer high electrical efficiency, typically in the range of 50-60%, making them suitable for
distributed power generation and cogeneration applications. The high operating temperature contributes to
efficient electrochemical reactions and heat recovery, enabling combined heat and power (CHP) systems to
achieve overall efficiencies exceeding 80%.
• Carbon Dioxide Capture: MCFCs produce carbon dioxide (CO2) as a byproduct of the electrochemical reaction.
However, the high operating temperature of MCFCs facilitates the capture and removal of CO2 from the exhaust
stream, which can potentially be utilized for various industrial processes or sequestered to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions.
• Catalysts: MCFCs typically use nickel-based catalysts at the anode and cathode to facilitate the electrochemical
reactions. These catalysts are effective at high temperatures but may be susceptible to degradation over time,
affecting the performance and longevity of the fuel cell stack.
• Applications: MCFCs are well-suited for stationary power generation applications, such as distributed generation
for residential, commercial, and industrial buildings, as well as utility-scale power plants. Their ability to operate
efficiently at high temperatures and utilize a variety of fuels makes them attractive for decentralized energy
production and grid stability.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
• Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) are a type of fuel cell that operates at high temperatures, typically between 500°C and 1,000°C, and uses a solid
oxide electrolyte to conduct ions between the electrodes. Here's an overview of SOFCs:
• Electrolyte: SOFCs use a solid ceramic electrolyte, typically made of zirconia stabilized with yttria (YSZ) or other metal oxides. This solid
electrolyte allows oxygen ions (O²⁻) to migrate from the cathode to the anode when a voltage is applied, and vice versa. Solid electrolytes
enable high-temperature operation and allow for the use of a variety of fuels.
• Anode: At the anode, typically made of porous nickel cermet, fuel (such as hydrogen, natural gas, or syngas) reacts with oxygen ions from the
electrolyte to produce electrons and water (in the case of hydrogen) or carbon dioxide (in the case of hydrocarbons).
• Cathode: At the cathode, typically made of porous lanthanum strontium manganite (LSM) or other perovskite materials, oxygen from air reacts
with electrons and oxygen ions from the electrolyte to form oxygen gas.
• Operating Temperature: SOFCs operate at high temperatures, which enables efficient ion transport and electrode kinetics, leading to high
electrical efficiency. However, this also presents challenges related to materials compatibility, thermal management, and start-up times.
• Fuel Flexibility: SOFCs can utilize a wide range of fuels, including hydrogen, natural gas, biogas, and syngas (a mixture of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide obtained from various sources including biomass, coal, or waste).
• Efficiency: SOFCs offer high electrical efficiency, typically in the range of 50-60%, and can achieve even higher efficiencies when used in
combined heat and power (CHP) systems, where waste heat from the fuel cell is captured and utilized for heating or other purposes.
• Applications: SOFCs are well-suited for stationary power generation applications, including residential, commercial, and industrial CHP systems,
as well as remote power generation and auxiliary power units (APUs) for vehicles and marine vessels.
• Challenges: Despite their advantages, SOFCs face challenges such as high costs, materials degradation, and durability issues. Ongoing research
and development efforts aim to address these challenges and improve the performance, reliability, and cost-effectiveness of SOFC technology
for various applications.
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs) are a type of fuel cell that generates electricity directly from the electrochemical reaction of methanol
and oxygen. Unlike some other fuel cell types that require hydrogen as a fuel, DMFCs use liquid methanol, which simplifies fuel storage and
distribution, making them attractive for portable and small-scale applications.
1.Operating Principle: In a DMFC, methanol is oxidized at the anode to produce protons, electrons, and carbon dioxide. The protons migrate
through a proton exchange membrane (PEM) to the cathode, while the electrons are forced to travel through an external circuit, generating
electrical current. At the cathode, oxygen from the air reacts with protons and electrons to form water.
2.Fuel: DMFCs use liquid methanol as the fuel, which is stored in a separate tank and supplied to the fuel cell. Methanol is a high-energy-
density liquid fuel, making it suitable for portable and mobile applications where energy density and storage convenience are important.
3.Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM): DMFCs typically use a PEM as the electrolyte, allowing for the selective transport of protons while
blocking the passage of electrons. The PEM enables the separation of the electrochemical reactions at the anode and cathode, facilitating the
generation of electricity.
4.Catalysts: Platinum or platinum-based catalysts are commonly used at both the anode and cathode to facilitate the electrochemical
reactions of methanol oxidation and oxygen reduction, respectively. These catalysts enhance the efficiency and kinetics of the reactions,
improving the performance of the fuel cell.
5.Operating Conditions: DMFCs operate at relatively low temperatures compared to some other fuel cell types, typically around 60°C to 90°C.
This moderate operating temperature enables rapid start-up times and makes DMFCs suitable for portable and mobile applications.
6.Applications: DMFCs have been explored for a variety of portable power applications, including small electronic devices such as
smartphones, laptops, cameras, and sensors. They are also being considered for portable generators, backup power systems, and auxiliary
power units (APUs) for vehicles.
7.Challenges: DMFCs face challenges such as methanol crossover, which reduces efficiency and can lead to fuel wastage, as well as durability
issues related to catalyst degradation and membrane stability. Research efforts are focused on addressing these challenges to improve the
performance and reliability of DMFC technology.