Networking Devices &

Transmission media
 Networking Parameters
Parameters for communicating across a network:
1. Hardware: The components that enable routing, computation, and security. E.g. routers,
transmission wires, fiber-optic, server end-points, etc.
2. Firmware: the software that enables specific functionalities in hardware e.g. Basic Input
Output System (BIOS).
3. Software: Applications that the end-user uses to interact with the computer and therefore
other computers.
4. Security: The overall communication needs to be secured end-to-end. Only the receiver
should be able to receive the message. The process of ensuring this is called encryption and
it comes under the subject of network security.
5. Topology: The internet is a very large network of small networks. Each of these small
networks communicates having a structure for internal communication even as it links with
other Networks. The structure established for the communication is referred to as a topology
e.g. Mesh, Bus, Star, Ring.
6. Transmission Technology: Wired and Wireless mediums. The internet is predominantly
wired and only at user endpoints do wireless routers populate the space of wireless transmission
but the future of the internet is towards wireless transmission.
7. Routing: Assigning the optimal route for transmission of information from source to
 Network Requirements:
Most important are;
• Performance,: This can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel
from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry
and a response. The performance of a network depends on a number of factors,
including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of
the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
• Reliability: Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it
takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
• Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies
and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
 Transmission media
• The transmission media is the link that allow communication between two
computing devices or nodes. Transmission media fall in two main categories:
• Bound/Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling
system that has a fixed path. For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires,
coaxial cable etc.
• Unbound/Unguided − In unguided media, transmitted data travels through
free space in form of electromagnetic signal. For example, radio waves, lasers,
etc.
• Each transmission media has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of
bandwidth, speed, delay, cost per bit, ease of installation and maintenance, etc.
 Guided: Twisted Pair Cable
• Twisted pair: To reduce this electromagnetic interference (EMI),
pair of copper wires are twisted together in regular spiral pattern
helical shape like a DNA molecule.
• One of these wires carry signals to the receiver, and the other is as
ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
• The twist rates are different for each pair to further reduce
interference between nearby pairs
• To reduce interference between nearby twisted pairs, The twist rates
are different for each pair and increasing the number of turns per foot
reduces noise

Twisted Pair Cable characteristics

• Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.
• Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.
• Typical delay is 50 µs/km.
• Repeater spacing is 2km
 Twisted Pair Cable cont…
• Advantages of twisted pair cable

• Trained personnel easily available due to shallow learning curve

• Can be used for both analog and digital transmissions

• Least expensive for short distances

• Disadvantages of twisted pair cable

• Signal cannot travel long distances without signal degradation or loss of

strength ( before requirement of repeaters)
• High error rate for distances greater than 100m

• Very thin and hence breaks easily

• Not suitable for broadband connections (i.e. high-speed Internet access)

 STP & UTP cable
Applications of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable:
i. In telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The Digital Subscriber Liles (DSL) that are used by the
telephone companies to provide high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded
twisted-pair cables.
ii. Local Area Network, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also use twisted-pair cables.
Shielded twisted Paper (STP)
• To counter the tendency of twisted pair cables to pick up noise signals, wires are shielded in the
following three ways
i. Each twisted pair is shielded.
ii. Set of multiple twisted pairs in the cable is shielded.
iii. All the pairs are shielded.
Advantages:
iv. Increases the signaling rate.
v. Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair.
vi. Eliminates crosstalk
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables:
• The wires that are not shielded but bundled together in a protective sheath and can have max length of
100 meter.
• Shielding makes the cable bulky, so UTP are more popular than STP. UTP cables are used as the last
Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cables are copper cables with better shielding than

twisted pair cables, so that transmitted signals may travel
longer distances at higher speeds. A coaxial cable layers are:
• Stiff copper wire as core
i. Insulating material (Dielectric) surrounding the core
ii. Closely woven braided mesh of conducting
material surrounding the insulator. It is used to help
shield the cable from electromagnetic interference
(EMI).
iii. Protective plastic sheath encasing the wire
• Coaxial cables are widely used for cable TV connections
and LANs
 Coaxial cable
• Coaxial cable is named after the two conductors that run parallel to each other. The center
conductor in the cable is usually copper, which is usually either a solid wire or stranded,
twisted copper.
• Outside this central conductor is a non-conductive material called a dielectric insulator. It
is usually a white, plastic material used to separate the inner conductor from the outer
conductor. The other conductor is a fine mesh made of braided copper. Wrapped outside
the copper mesh is the final non-conductive protective cover.
Advantages
• Excellent noise immunity
• Signals can travel longer distances at higher speeds e.g. 1 to 2 Gbps for 1 Km cable
• Can be used for both analog and digital signals
• Inexpensive as compared to fibre optic cables
• Easy to install and maintain
Disadvantages
• Expensive as compared to twisted pair cables
• Not compatible with twisted pair cables
 Coaxial cable

• RG, or Radio Guide, is the original military specification for coaxial

cables. The numbers following RG in a part number are generally an
indicator of size, referring to the diameter of the cable. Higher RG
numbers have a thinner central conductor and vice versa.
• The higher the RG number, the thinner the central core conductor.
The lower the RG number, the thicker the core conductor.
• The following are the most common coaxial standards:
• 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11: Used for thick Ethernet or "thicknet".
• 50-Ohm RG-58: Used for thin Ethernet, or "cheapernet".
• 75-Ohm RG-59: Used for cable television.
• 93-Ohm RG-62: Used for ARCNET.(Attached Resource Computer
NETwork is a communications protocol for local area networks
 Optical Fibre
Optical fibre cable : Consists of thin glass or plastic threads bundled
together in a protective covering. They are used to transmit data
using light waves from Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Laser
Diodes (LDs) emit light waves at the source, which is read by
a detector at the other Each
end. fibre of glass or plastic threads is made up
of these three layers:
• Core is the innermost made of high
quality silica glass or plastic
• Cladding made of high quality silica
glass or plastic, with a lower refractive index
than the core
• Protective outer covering called buffer
• The difference between the core and cladding
is refractive index. The cladding is lower, any
stray light wave trying to escape the core is
 Optical Fibre
Advantages
• High bandwidth
• Immune to electromagnetic interference
• Suitable for industrial and noisy areas
• Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening
Disadvantages
• Optical fibre cables are expensive
• Sophisticated technology required for manufacturing, installing &
maintaining optical fibre cables.
• Light waves are unidirectional, so two frequencies are required
for full duplex transmission.
 Transmission media cont…
Propagation Modes: Current technology supports
two modes(Multimode and Single mode) for
propagating light along optical channels, each
requiring fiber with different physical
characteristics.
Multimode optical fibers have large cores (50 µm
or 62.5 µm) when compared with single mode
optical fibers (less than 10 µm). Multimode fibers
can transfer many modes of light signals
simultaneously with each ray of light running at a
• Increased diameterdifferent
and more modes can
reflection. It iscause more light
implemented inreflections
two
and more attenuation of light
forms: signals (bigger
Step-index core), some of the light
and Graded-index.
beams may travel a direct route, whereas others bounce off These
alternate paths cause the different groups of light beams(modes) to
arrive separately at the end of the link. Therefore multimode fibers
(mmf) are used to carry light signals over a short distance, typically
 Transmission media cont…

Signal Propagation in Fiber Optic Cable

• Single mode uses step-index fibre and a highly focused source of light that
limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal. The single-
mode fibre has much smaller diameter than that of multimode fibre, and a
substantially lower density. The decrease in density results in a critical angle
 Transmission media cont…
Optical fiber:
• In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains
constant from the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through
this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of
the core and the cladding.
• Step-index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes
to the distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber.
• In multimode graded-index fiber, this distortion gets decreased
through the cable. This index of refraction is related to the density. A
graded-index fiber has varying densities, highest at the center of the
core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.
Multi-Mode Fiber Optics: Due to the large core size of multimode
fiber, some low-cost light sources like LEDs (light-emitting diodes) and
VCSELs (vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers) are typically used.
Because of this, transmission system costs (transmitters and receivers)
 Transmission media cont…
Propagation Modes of Fiber Optic Cable
Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter or their core to
the diameter of their cladding, both expressed in micrometers. The
common sizes:

Applications of Fiber Optic Cable

Often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-
effective.
Local-area Networks such as 100Base-FX network and 1000Base-X
also use fiber-optic cable
Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fibre and
 Transmission media cont…
Fiber Optic Transmission Technology
• Usually, a fiber optic communication system consists of three main
components:
i) Optical transmitter (semiconductor devices (e.g.) LEDs and laser diodes
-converts the electrical signal to the optical signal
ii) fibre optic cable- carries the optical signal
iii) An optical receiver -reconverts the optical signal to electrical signal.
Photodetector is the key part of an optical receiver. It converts light into
electricity
 Transmission media cont…
Advantages Optical Fiber cable :
–High bandwidth and greater transmission speed. The volume of data that fiber
optic cables transmit per unit time is far greater than copper cables.
–Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening. Less
signal attenuation
–Optical fibers use light waves for transmission hence immune to (EMI),
Crosstalk
–They're highly secure.
–Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening
–Suitable for industrial and noisy areas
Disadvantages
• expensive and additional optical components needed for installation make fiber optic more
expensive
• Sophisticated technology required for manufacturing, installing and maintaining optical fiber cables
• Light waves are unidirectional, so two frequencies are required for full duplex transmission.
• Installation and maintenance are difficult and costly.
• Highly Fragile
• Light waves are unidirectional, so two frequencies are required for full duplex transmission
 Radio Wave
Transmission of data using radio frequencies is called radio-wave
transmission. Radio stations transmit radio waves
using transmitters, which are received by the receiver installed in our
devices. Both transmitters and receivers use antennas to radiate or
capture radio signals. These radio frequencies can also be used
for direct voice communication within the allocated range. This
range is usually 10 miles.
Advantages
• Inexpensive mode of information exchange
• No land needs to be acquired for laying cables
• Installation and maintenance of devices is cheap
Disadvantages of Radio Wave
 Network topologies
• A link is a communications pathway that transfers data
Point-to-Point
from one device to another. There are two possible types
of phyiscal connections:
• 1. Point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link
(an actual length of wire or cable) to connect the two

Multi-point devices e.g. computer, switches or routers, servers

connected back to back. If the hosts are connected point-to-
point logically, then may have multiple intermediate devices.
But the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and see
each other as if they are connected directly.
• 2. Multipoint: A multipoint or multidrop connection is one in
which several devices share a single link. In a multipoint
 Network topologies cont...
• A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer
systems or network devices are connected to each other. Topologies
may define both physical and logical aspect of the network.

• Physical Topology: Physical layout of network or the geometric

representation of the relationship of nodes via links. Examples ;
mesh, star, bus, and ring.
• Logical Topology: defines how data is moved throughout the
network & the path it takes.
 Star Topology:

Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central

controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to
one another ( no direct traffic between devices). The controller acts as
an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the
 Star Topology:
Advantages:
1. A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs
only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
2. Easy to install and reconfigure. Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star
topology new nodes can be added easily without affecting rest of the network.
Similarly components can also be removed easily
3. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve
only one connection: between that device and the hub.
4 A star topology is robust. i.e. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other
links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault
isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and
bypass defective links. Signals don’t necessarily get transmitted to all the
workstations. A sent signal reaches the intended destination after passing through no
more than 3-4 devices and 2-3 links.
5. Centralised management. It helps in monitoring the network
• Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network. At the same time its
easy to detect the failure and troubleshoot it.
 Star Topology:
Disadvantages:
• A major disadvantage of this network topology is
that if the central hub fails, all computers
connected to that hub would be disconnected.
(single point of failure). Every communication
between hosts, takes place through only the hub.
• The use of hub, a router or a switch as central
device increases the overall cost of the network.
• Performance and as well number of nodes which
can be added in such topology is depended on
capacity of central device.
 Bus topology
• A bus topology is multipoint with all
devices sharing single communication
line or cable. This is the backbone of the
network and is known as Bus.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by
drop lines and taps. A drop line is a
connection running between the device
and the main cable. A tap is a connector
that either splices into the main cable or
• It is one of the simple forms of networking
punctures where of
the sheathing a failure of ato
a cable
device does not affect the other devices.
create The
a contact data
with theis metallic
sent in only
coreone
direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator
removes the data from the line.
• As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it
 Bus topology cont…
• Advantages
• ease of installation (Easy to implement and extend). Backbone cable can be laid along
the most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. It
is hence well suited for temporary networks (quick setup)
• Initially less expensive than other topologies
• The linear bus network is well-suited for LAN
• Disadvantages
• Difficult to administer/troubleshoot.
• Limited cable length and number of stations.
• If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network goes down.
• Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run.
• Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy traffic.
• Low security (all computers on the bus can see all data transmissions).
• One virus in the network will affect all of them
• Proper termination is required.(loop must be in closed path).
• If one node fails, the whole network will shut down.
• If many computers are attached, the amount of data flowing causes the network to
slow down
 Mesh Topology:

• Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to

every other device. The dedicated link carries traffic
only between the two devices it connects.
• In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or
multiple hosts. This topology has hosts in point-to-
point connection with every other host or may also
have hosts which are in point-to-point connection to
few hosts only.
 Mesh Topology cont..
Advantages :
1. The dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple
devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system.
3. Another advantage of Mesh topology is advantage of privacy or security. When every
message travels along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical
boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to messages.
4. point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be
routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This helps to discover the precise location
of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.
Disadvantages:
• 1. Disadvantage of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling because every device
must be connected to every other device.
• 2. Installation and reconnection are difficult.
• 3. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls,
ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
• 4. The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be
 Network topologies cont...

• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point

Ring Topologyconnection with only the two devices on either side of it. A
signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring
incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended
for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along.

• When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host

which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all
intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the existing
structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable.
 Ring Topology cont..
• Advantages:
• A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. To add or delete a device
requires changing only two connections.
• A signal is circulating at all times (token) if one device does not receive a signal
within specified period, it can issue an alarm to alert the network operator to the
problem and its location
• Data is quickly transferred
• The transmission of data is relatively simple as packets travel in one direction only.
• Adding additional nodes has very little impact on bandwidth
• It prevents network collisions because of the media access method or architecture
required.
Disadvantages:
1. Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. A break in the ring ( e.g. a disabled
station) can disable the entire network. This can be solved by using a dual ring or
a switch capable of closing off the break.
2. Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every connection in
the ring is a point of failure. There are methods which employ one more backup
ring.
 Network devices
Network devices including: Hub, Switch, Router, Bridge, Gateway,
Modem and Repeater
• Hub: It contains multiple input/output ports for connects LAN
components with identical protocols. When signal is at any input
port, this signal will be made at all output ports except the one it is
coming from.
• Ethernet Hubs are network devices at Layer 1. They do not make
any decisions on traffic. They expand the network by their extra
ports There are two type Hubs:
• Passive Hub: Only medium providing network expansion and extra
ports.
• Active Hub: provide network expansion but also strengthen the
signals. When it receives an electrical signal, it will repeat it on all
interfaces except the one where it received the signal on. A hub also
acts as a repeater by amplifying signals that deteriorate after
traveling long distances over connecting cables
 Network devices cont…

• Modem: Modem stands for Modulator/Demodulator. A modem converts

digital signals generated by the computer into analog signals which, then can
be transmitted over cable line and transforms incoming analog signals into
digital equivalents.
• Cables:
In Wired network architecture (e.g Ethernet), cables are used to interconnect
the devices. some of the types of cables are coaxial cable, optical fiber cable,
and twisted pair cable.
• A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. Its a
device which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher
power so that the signal can cover longer distances, more than 100 meters for
standard LAN cables. Repeaters work on the Physical layer.
• NIC: The NIC puts data onto the network and receives network data for a
host. Two of the more common configurations for a NIC are full duplex and
half duplex. Full duplex means data can be sent and received from interface
at the same time. Half duplex means data is either sent or received at one
 Network devices cont…

• Gateways: In computer networking, a gateway is a component that is part of

two networks, which use different protocols. The gateway is a protocol
converter which will translate one protocol into the other. A router is a special
case of a gateway.
• Firewall: A firewall is a system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or
from a private network, some of the functionalities of firewall are, packet
filtering and as a proxy server.
• Bridge: a device that connects connect two or more hosts or network segments
together. It stores and forwards frames between the different LAN segments .
A bridge is different to a hub because it make decisions on the data it receives.
• A bridge undertakes selective forwarding of network data ( filtering). It checks
the destination MAC address of received frame to determine whether to
forward it to the other LAN segment or not.
• Bridges & switches uses MAC address to make forwarding decisions and
records MAC in address in tables
 Network devices cont…
• Switch: Is a more intelligent device than a hub. A switch
is multiport device that improves network efficiency,
with devices attached to each port. It connects devices
like Computer, printers servers etc. A switch is a.
• A switch uses MAC address in sending data packets. It
Encapsulates Data packet & includes MAC Addresses
for source and Destination in sending to another device.

• Filtering: When a switch receives a frame, it reads the destination

MAC address and will forwards the frame to only the port to which
the host attached to. (i.e. This filters out unnecessary traffic).
• Broadcast: A switch forwards the frame to all nodes if it does not
know which port the host is on, or if a broadcast frame is received.
 Network devices cont…
• Routers: Routers are essential for determining the path and delivery for data
between devices on a LAN. A router also forms a LAN to WAN connection,
bridging between a physical LAN connection etc.
• It a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks.
Routers are general-purpose devices that interconnect two or more
heterogeneous networks (networks using different protocols & nodes operating
systems).
• An example of a heterogeneous network at the hardware level is a combination
of Ethernet and Token Ring LANs connected with a Fibre Distributed data
interface (FDDI) backbone. Routers establish communication by maintaining
tables about destinations and local connections.
• A router contains information about the systems connected to it and where to
send requests if the destination isn’t known. Routers normally connect Local
Area Network (LANs) and Wide Area Network (WANs) together and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on
routing the incoming packets
Network devices cont…

• Ethernet Bridges
• Ethernet Bridges are the predecessor of
modern LAN switches. They were
introduced to resolve the scaling problem
with shared segments and collisions. Bridges
are layer 2 devices, which means they can
read the Ethernet Header of the frames they
forward and take decisions based on the
information in the headers. This eliminated
the need to send all frames out all ports,
which practically means to repeat all
electrical signals out to all ports. Therefore,
Ethernet bridges split a network segment into
two collision domains as shown in Figure
 Network devices cont…

• Bridge: a device that connects connect two

or more hosts or network segments together.
It stores and forwards frames between the
different LAN segments. A bridge is
different to a hub because it make decisions
on the data it receives.
• A bridge undertakes selective forwarding of
network data ( filtering). It checks the
destination MAC address of received frame
• Since network traffic is not automatically
to determine sent toitall
whether to forward to the
network segments, other
BridgeLAN then divides
segment a collision
or not.
domain.
• Flooding: Both hubs and bridges sometimes forward
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 Summary

1.
a) Distinguish the features:
i) of the Physical Mesh and Ring topologies
ii) Logical ring and star topologies in networking

b) Distinguish the structure, performance, the usage of fibre optic

Cable and Coaxial cables

c) Discuss Analog Bandwidth and Network bandwidth

End