The Von Neumann Architecture

Von Neumann
Architecture
 Designing Computers

• All computers more or less based on the same

2
 The Von Neumann Architecture
Bus

Processor (CPU)
Memory Input-Output
Control Unit

ALU
Store data and program Communicate with
"outside world", e.g.
• Screen
Execute program • Keyboard
Do arithmetic/logic operations • Storage devices
requested by program • ...
3
 The Von Neumann Architecture
• Model for designing and building computers,
based on the following three characteristics:
1) The computer consists of four main sub-systems:
• Memory
• ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit)
• Control Unit
• Input/Output System (I/O)
2) Program is stored in memory during execution.
3) Program instructions are executed sequentially.

4
 Memory Subsystem
• Memory, also called RAM (Random Access
Memory),
– Consists of many memory cells (storage units) of a fixed size.
Each cell has an address associated with it: 0, 1, …
– All accesses to memory are to a specified address.
A cell is the minimum unit of access (fetch/store a complete
cell).
– The time it takes to fetch/store a cell is the same for all cells.
• When the computer is running, both
– Program
– Data (variables)
are stored in the memory.
5
 RAM
• Need to distinguish between N
– the address of a memory cell and 0000000000000001
the content of a memory cell 1 bit
• Memory width (W): 0
– How many bits is each memory 1
cell, typically one byte (=8 bits)
2
• Address width (N):
– How many bits used to represent 2N
each address, determines the
...
maximum memory size = address
space
– If address width is N-bits, then
address space is 2N (0,1,...,2N-1) 2N-1

W 6
 Memory Size / Speed
• Typical memory in a personal computer (PC):
– 64MB - 256MB
• Memory sizes:
– Kilobyte (KB) = 210 = 1,024 bytes ~ 1
thousand
– Megabyte(MB) = 220 = 1,048,576 bytes ~ 1
million
– Gigabyte (GB) = 230 = 1,073,741,824 bytes ~ 1
billion
• Memory Access Time (read from/ write to memory)
– 50-75 nanoseconds (1 nsec. = 0.000000001 sec.)
• RAM is
– volatile (can only store when power is on)
– relatively expensive 7
 Operations on Memory
• Fetch (address):
– Fetch a copy of the content of memory cell with the specified
address.
– Non-destructive, copies value in memory cell.
• Store (address, value):
– Store the specified value into the memory cell specified by
address.
– Destructive, overwrites the previous value of the memory cell.
• The memory system is interfaced via:
– Memory Address Register (MAR)
– Memory Data Register (MDR)
– Fetch/Store signal
8
 Structure of the Memory Subsystem
• Fetch(address)
MAR MDR – Load address into MAR.
F/S – Decode the address in MAR.
Memory
Fetch/Store – Copy the content of memory cell
decoder
controller with specified address into MDR.
circuit
• Store(address, value)
– Load the address into MAR.
– Load the value into MDR.
... – Decode the address in MAR
– Copy the content of MDR into
memory cell with the specified
address.
9
 Input/Output Subsystem
• Handles devices that allow the computer system
to:
– Communicate and interact with the outside world
• Screen, keyboard, printer, ...
– Store information (mass-storage)
• Hard-drives, floppies, CD, tapes, …
• Mass-Storage Device Access Methods:
– Direct Access Storage Devices (DASDs)
• Hard-drives, floppy-disks, CD-ROMs, ...
– Sequential Access Storage Devices (SASDs)
• Tapes (for example, used as backup devices)
10
 I/O Controllers
• Speed of I/O devices is slow compared to RAM
– RAM ~ 50 nsec.
– Hard-Drive ~ 10msec. = (10,000,000 nsec)
• Solution:
– I/O Controller, a special purpose processor:
• Has a small memory buffer, and a control logic to
control I/O device (e.g. move disk arm).
• Sends an interrupt signal to CPU when done
read/write.
– Data transferred between RAM and memory buffer.
– Processor free to do something else while I/O
controller reads/writes data from/to device into I/O
buffer.
11
 Structure of the I/O Subsystem
Interrupt signal (to processor)
Data from/to memory

I/O controller
I/O Buffer

Control/Logic

I/O device

12
 The ALU Subsystem
• The ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit) performs
– mathematical operations (+, -, x, /, …)
– logic operations (=, <, >, and, or, not, ...)
• In today's computers integrated into the CPU
• Consists of:
– Circuits to do the arithmetic/logic operations.
– Registers (fast storage units) to store intermediate
computational results.
– Bus that connects the two.

13
 Structure of the ALU
• Registers:
R0
– Very fast local memory cells, that
store operands of operations and R1
intermediate results. R2
– CCR (condition code register), a
special purpose register that stores
the result of <, = , > operations
• ALU circuitry: Rn
– Contains an array of circuits to do
mathematical/logic operations.
• Bus: ALU circuitry
– Data path interconnecting the
registers to the ALU circuitry.
GT EQ LT
14
 The Control Unit
• Program is stored in memory
– as machine language instructions, in binary
• The task of the control unit is to execute
programs by repeatedly:
– Fetch from memory the next instruction to be
executed.
– Decode it, that is, determine what is to be done.
– Execute it by issuing the appropriate signals to
the ALU, memory, and I/O subsystems.
– Continues until the HALT instruction
15
 Machine Language Instructions
• A machine language instruction consists of:
– Operation code, telling which operation to
perform
– Address field(s), telling the memory addresses
of the values on which the operation works.
• Example: ADD X, Y (Add content of memory
locations X and Y, and store back in memory location Y).
• Assume: opcode for ADD is 9, and addresses X=99, Y=100

Opcode (8 bits) Address 1 (16 bits) Address 2 (16 bits)

16
 Instruction Set Design
• Two different approaches:
– Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)
• Instruction set as small and simple as possible.
• Minimizes amount of circuitry --> faster computers
– Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
• More instructions, many very complex
• Each instruction can do more work, but require
more circuitry.

17
 Typical Machine Instructions
• Notation:
– We use X, Y, Z to denote RAM cells
– Assume only one register R (for simplicity)
– Use English-like descriptions (should be binary)
• Data Transfer Instructions
– LOAD X Load content of memory location X to R
– STORE X Load content of R to memory location X
– MOVE X, Y Copy content of memory location X
to loc. Y
(not absolutely necessary)

18
 Machine Instructions (cont.)
• Arithmetic
– ADD X, Y, Z CON(Z) = CON(X) + CON(Y)
– ADD X, Y CON(Y) = CON(X) + CON(Y)
– ADD X R = CON(X) + R
– similar instructions for other operators, e.g. SUBTR,OR, ...
• Compare
– COMPARE X, Y
Compare the content of memory cell X to the content of
memory cell Y and set the condition codes (CCR)
accordingly.
– E.g. If CON(X) = R then set EQ=1, GT=0, LT=0

19
 Machine Instructions (cont.)
• Branch
– JUMP X Load next instruction from memory
loc. X
– JUMPGT X Load next instruction from memory loc. X
only if GT flag in CCR is set,
otherwise load statement from next
sequence loc. as usual.
• JUMPEQ, JUMPLT, JUMPGE, JUMPLE,JUMPNEQ
• Control
– HALT Stop program execution.

20
 Example
• Pseudo-code: Set A to B + C
• Assuming variable:
– A stored in memory cell 100, B stored in
memory cell 150, C stored in memory cell 151
• Machine language (really in binary)
– LOAD 150
– ADD 151
– STORE 100
– or
– (ADD 150, 151, 100)
21
 Structure of the Control Unit
• PC (Program Counter):
– stores the address of next instruction to fetch
• IR (Instruction Register):
– stores the instruction fetched from memory
• Instruction Decoder:
– Decodes instruction and activates necessary circuitry

PC IR

+1
Instruction
Decoder

22