Research Methodology

Part III
Survey Designs and Sampling
Content of the lecture
 Introduction – Survey Research
 Research Designs
 Types of Research Design
 The Experimental Design
 Survey Sampling
 Probability samples
 Non probability samples
 Problems in Sampling
Survey research
 Surveys are the most widely used method of collecting a wide
variety of information in research.

 Through surveys we collect data sets and present them in the

form of a variable by case data grid

 ‘Case’ is the unit of analysis (e.g., household in household

surveys or firms in a firm survey)
Survey Research
Variables
Variables
hh size income hh head
Hh 1 hh 10
size income450 hh head
F
Cases Hh 1 10 450 F
Hh 2 5 1000 F
Cases Hh 2 5 1000 F
Hh
Hh 33 77 745
745 MM
… … … …
… … … …
Survey Research
 Mainly structured questionnaires are used but other
instruments can also be used to collect survey data (e.g.,
observation)
 Advantages: If planned correctly,
 Surveys make it easy for people to participate.
 Participants can remain anonymous.
 Same questions can be asked in several ways to double-check
for accuracy and consistency, etc.
Survey Research
 Survey Disadvantages
 People surveyed may not answer all questions.
 It is easy for people to give habitual responses.
 Low response rate is common.
 People can and do lie.
 Can’t test knowledge with mailed surveys.
 Research Design
 A research design is a plan, structure and strategy
of investigation.
 It provides the framework for the collection and
analysis of data and indicates which research methods
are appropriate.
 In other words, it is a plan that directs the
collection, estimation and analysis of data.
 A good research design enables a researcher to collect
sufficient information with smaller bias and
reasonable costs.
 Types of survey designs
 Although there could be numerous types of research designs,
some are more widely used than others.
 The choice of which design to apply depends on the nature
of the problem posed by the research.
 Here, we consider five major types of research designs:
 Experimental, Quasi experimental, Cross-sectional,
Longitudinal and Case studies.
 A. The Experimental design
The Experimental design identifies the effects by a random
assignment of a treatment between a control and a treatment
group
 This design assumes that the cases that are being studied
can be manipulated by the researcher so that changes or
differences can be measured.
i.e., the experimental design refers to a research design in
which the investigator actively manipulates or controls the
variables.
The Experimental design
 It is a controlled observation of the effects of a manipulated
independent variable on a dependent variable.
 Changes are made to an independent variable and the effects
are observed on a dependent variable – i.e. cause and
effect.
 It is nowadays considered as the gold standard.
 There are several classes of experiment – true, quasi, etc.
which are characterized by the amount of control involved in
the methods.
The Experimental design
 Experimental research is different from other methods because it gives
researchers more control over what they are studying. For example, in
a laboratory, scientists can carefully control chemical experiments to see
clear cause-and-effect results.
 However, in social research, it is not always possible to control
everything. For instance, we cannot intentionally stop a child from
going to school just to study the effects of education. This would be
both unethical and impractical because many other factors, like family
and environment, also influence a child’s learning.
The Experimental design
An experiment usually has two key elements:
1. Experimental group – this is the group of people or
materials that are manipulated or changed.
2. Control group – this is a group of people or materials
that are the same as the experimental group in every
way except the aspect of manipulation or change.
The Experimental design
 Manipulation helps to isolate and control the influence of
confounding variables in a randomisation process .

 Confounding variables - variables correlated with both the

dependent and the independent variable

 By controlling and manipulating variables systematically, we

can determine which variables influence the behavior that we
are studying.
The Experimental design
 Before the experiment starts, the experimental and control
groups need to be similar.
 Then, participants are assigned at random to experimental and
control groups.
 In this way,
 we will have two groups: experimental and control groups
(with and without ‘treatment’)
 And changes in the experimental groups before and after
‘treatment’ compared with changes in the control group.
The Experimental design
 The Experimental design
Method of Pre-test Intervention Post-test
allocation to (X)
groups
Random Measure on ‘Treatment’ Measure on outcome
(experimental outcome variable variable (Y)
group) (Y)
Random (control Measure on No ‘treatment’ Measure on outcome
group) outcome variable variable (Y)
(Y)
Randomised control trials
 Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are commonly
held when testing medical drugs or treatments.
 ‘Classic’ case: clinical trial for a new medicine
Patients randomly assigned into
experimental/treatment and control groups
Health status of participants measured
Randomised control trials
 New medicine given to experimental group and the
control group receives placebo
 Improvements in the two groups are measured after
some time
 If conditions of experimental group significantly
improved compared to control, the medicine is
working
B. Quasi-experimental designs
Uses a comparison group similar to the treatment group (but
there is no random assignment)
 It is a research design where two or more groups of
participants can be identified, and one is used as the control
and the other as the experimental group.
 A group is tested for the influence of a variable and compared
with a control group which has not been subjected to the
variable.
 Example: Participants and non participants in a program
Quasi-experimental designs
 Example: Kottara, C., Asonitou, S., Anagnostopoulos, T.,
Ntanos, S., & Choustoulakis, E. (2024). Exploring learning
outcomes in Financial accounting: a quasi-experimental
study using Multiple Choice Question (MCQ) Test in
blended learning environment. Journal of Research in
Business and Management, 12(11), 51-62.
 You can access the full article :
https://www.questjournals.org/jrbm/papers/vol12-issue11/1211
5162.pdf
Difference Between Experimental and Quasi-Experimental
Research
Feature Experimental Research Quasi-Experimental Research
Definition Uses random assignment to allocate subjects into groups and Lacks random assignment but still
tests causal relationships. examines causal relationships.
Randomization Yes – Participants are randomly assigned to treatment and No – Groups are pre-existing or assigned
control groups. based on external factors.
Control Over High – Researchers can manipulate independent variables and Moderate – Some control, but
Variables control for confounding variables. confounding variables may exist.
Causal Inference Strong – Can establish clear cause-and-effect relationships. Weaker – May suggest causation but
cannot fully rule out alternative
explanations.
Common Designs Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs), True Experiments. Matching, Regression Discontinuity,
Difference-in-Differences, Natural
Experiments.
Example Testing the effect of a new educational method by randomly Studying the impact of a minimum wage
assigning students to different teaching styles. increase by comparing two cities where
one increased wages and the other did not.
 C. Cross-sectional designs
 In cross sectional designs information is gathered to look at
similarities or differences only at one point in time;
It provides a snapshot of ideas, opinions, information,
etc.
Less expensive and most common type.

They are often associated with large-scale surveys using

questionnaires.
D. Longitudinal designs
 Longitudinal designs consist of repeated cross-sectional
surveys to ascertain how time influences the results.
 useful for capturing changes over time.
 This design will enable you to look at the same people or
situations at key points in time and consider the changes
over time.
 i.e. data is gathered on at least two occasions in time.
 Because of the repeated nature of this research design, it
tends to be expensive and time consuming
Longitudinal design
 Two types of study are commonly identified:
 Panel studies – these consist of a sample of people, often
randomly selected, who are questioned more than once.
 Cohort studies – these concentrate on a group that shares
similar characteristics, such as students from a particular
year of matriculation or people on strike at a certain time,
etc.
E. Case study
 This is a detailed analysis of either a single case or a
small number of cases.
The information may be both qualitative and
quantitative.
 In case study design, no claim is made for
generalizability.
 The subject of the case may be a person, an organization,
a situation or a country.
Case study
 The selection of the cases may be based on:
1. Critical case. Here the case is chosen as one that will enable
the researcher to test a theory or hypothesis.
2. Extreme or unique case. Here the focus is on a situation or
group that is perceived to be different to any other and the
focus is on its uniqueness.
3. Representative or typical case. This is a case that is chosen
because it is seen to represent many other similar cases
 Survey Sampling
 Some studies involve only small number of people and thus
all of them can be included.
 But when the population is large, it is usually not possible
to undertake a census.
 Therefore, we will be forced to work with a smaller, more
manageable number of people.
 The selection of some cases from a larger group of potential
cases is called sampling.
 It aims at obtaining consistent and unbiased estimates of
the population parameters.
Survey Sampling
 The best sample is a representative sample.
 So, a sample is a portion of a larger whole.
 Of course, no sample is perfect, as it usually has some
degree of bias or error.
 But, if this sample is chosen carefully using the correct
procedure, it is possible to generalize the results to the
whole of the population.
Survey Sampling

Why sampling?
 Reasons for Sampling
 Reduced cost: since data are secured from a small fraction
of the population, cost will be reduced.
 Greater speed: for the same reasons as above, sample
surveys can be reported faster than that of census.
 Greater scope and accuracy: since samples deal with fewer
units than complete census, it is possible to attain greater
accuracy.
 highly trained personnel, careful supervision, specialized
equipment, etc.
 Reasons for Sampling
 Feasibility: some investigations could only be addressed by
sample surveys:
 Example
 when studying infinite populations,
 laboratory testing of one’s blood,
 when conducting quality assurance tests (especially when
the test involves the destruction of the product), etc.
Survey Sampling
 In sampling we need to ensure Representativeness
 There are two principles in representativeness:
 The need to avoid bias and the need to gain maximum
precision.
 Bias can arise for instance:
 If the selection of the sample is done by some non-
random method
 If the sampling frame (i.e. list, index, population
record) does not adequately cover the target
population.
Survey Sampling
 Representativeness is important particularly if you want to make
generalization about the population.
 So, for Quantitative Studies:
 Sample should be drawn in such a way that it is representative of
the population.
 For Qualitative Studies:
 Representativeness of the sample is NOT a primary concern.
 In qualitative studies we select study units which give you the
richest possible information.
 You go for INFORMATION-RICH cases!
 Steps in Sampling Design
a) Identifying the relevant population:
 Determine the relevant population from which the sample is going to be
drawn.

 Example: if the study concerns income, then the definition of the population
as individuals or households can make a difference.

b) Determining the method of sampling:

 Whether a probability sampling procedure or a non-probability sampling
procedure has to be used.
Steps in Sampling Design
c) Securing a sampling frame:
 A list of elements from which the sample is actually drawn is important and
necessary.

d) Identifying parameters of interest:

 What specific population characteristics (variables and attributes) may be of
interest.

e) Determining the sample size

 The determination of the sample size deepens on several factors.
 Obviously, the bigger, the better
 Determining the sample size
 One of the questions researchers tend to ask is ‘how many people
should I speak to?’
 This is not an easy question.

 The decision of the sample size hinges on how large an error one is
willing to tolerate in estimating population parameters.

 Sample size is very important in quantitative research.

Determining the sample size
 In sample size determination, statistical precision must be
balanced against time, cost, and other practical considerations.

 Research designs with too small of a sample size are unethical

because they waste resources.

 If the sample size is too small, it will not be possible to make

valid generalizations.
Determining the sample size
 Research studies that use too large sample i.e., larger than needed
also are unethical because
 time and financial resources wasted,

 human subjects undergo experimental procedures that

could be distressful, painful.

 The sample size will also depend on what you want to do with your
results.
Determining the sample size
 The general rule in quantitative research is that the larger
the sample the better it is.

 However, you have to remember that you are probably restricted

by time and money
 Therefore, you have to make sure that you construct a sample
which will be manageable.
Determining the sample size
 Also, you have to account for non-responses and you may need to
choose a larger sample size to overcome this problem.
 There will be some non-responders – people who do not agree to take
part in your research – and some whom you may not be able to
contact.

 select at least 10% more than you hope to gain responses from.
In the process we have to consider
i) Degree of homogeneity: The size of the population variance is the
most important parameter.
 The greater the dispersion in the population the larger the
sample must be to provide a given estimation precession.
ii) Degree of confidence required: you must determine how much
precision you need.
 Precision is measured in terms of
 An interval range.
 The degree of confidence
 i.e. the sample size is determined by the level accuracy required in
the study.
Determining the sample size
iii) Number of sub groups to be studied:
 When the researcher is interested in making estimates
concerning various subgroups of the population then the sample
must be large enough for each of these subgroups to meet the
desired quality level.

iv) Cost: All studies have some budgetary constraint and hence cost
dictates the size of the sample.

 The level of precision obviously increases with increase in the size of the
sample thus researchers are usually challenged by the interest of
balancing accuracy and cost.
Determining the sample size
v) Practicality: Of course the sample size you select must make sense.
 Therefore the sample size is usually a compromise between what is
DESIRABLE and what is FEASIBLE.
FEASIBLE
 For some researchers, the sample size may be influenced by the
resources available.
 But, the limitations of a smaller sample need to be reported in
the research report or dissertation.
Determining the sample size
VI) Other Considerations:
 (i)Prior information: If our process has been studied before, we can
use that prior information to determine our sample size.
 This can be done by using prior mean and variance estimates.
 Note: If you know the mean and variance statistical methods can be
used to determine the size of the sample required for a given level of
accuracy.
Determining the sample size
 (VII) Rule of Thumb: is based on past experience.
 For small populations (under 1000 a large sampling ratio
(about 30%). Hence, a sample size of about 300 is required.
 For moderately large population (10,000), a smaller sampling
ratio (about 10%) is needed – a sample size around 1,000.
 To sample from very large population (over 10 million), one can
achieve accuracy using tiny sampling ratios (.025%) or samples
of about 2,500.
Determining the sample size
 (VIII) Using Cochran’s Formula: You need to determine a few things
about the sample you need.

 Margin of Error (Confidence Interval) — No sample will be perfect,

so you need to decide how much error to allow.
 The confidence interval determines how much higher or lower
than the population mean you are willing to let your sample mean
fall.

 It will look something like this: “68% of voters said yes to

proposition Z, with a margin of error of +/- 5%.”
Determining the sample size
 Confidence Level — How confident do you want to be that the actual
mean falls within your confidence interval?
 The most common confidence intervals are 90% confident, 95%
confident, and 99% confident.

 Standard of Deviation — How much variance do you expect in your

responses?

 The safe decision is to use 0.5 – this is the most commonly used number.
Determining the sample size
 Cochran (1963) has developed the following formula to determined sample
size.

 Where n represents sample size, Z is z-score which is confidence level of

95%, p represents standard deviation which commonly takes a value of 0.5,
q= 1-p, e represents the level of precision (margin of error commonly used is
+/- 5% with confidence interval of 95%).
Determining the sample size
Sample Size in Qualitative Studies
 Sample size is not big issue in qualitative research since the
emphasis is deep understanding of a phenomenon.
 i.e., no fixed rules for sample size in qualitative research.
 The sample size depends on WHAT you try to find out, and
from what different informants or perspectives you try to
find that out.

 The sample size is therefore estimated, but not

determined.
 Probability and non-probability sampling
 We can arrange the different approaches to the sampling process in a
spectrum.

 At one end of the spectrum are the sampling approaches that are based
on statistical theory.

 They aim to produce a sample that can be highly representative of the

whole population

 These are called probability samples.

 Probability and non-probability sampling
 At the other end of the spectrum are approaches to
sampling that are concerned with selecting cases that will
enable the researcher to explore the research questions in
depth,

 These are called purposive or non probability samples

 Probability sampling
 Probability sampling is based on the concept of random
selection that assures that each population element is given
a known non zero chance of being selected.
 i.e., a sample drawn in such a way that the probability of
being chosen is known.
 A randomization process is used in order to reduce or
eliminate sampling bias so that the sample is
representative of the population from which it is drawn.
 i.e., random selection minimizes human bias
 Probability sampling
 Probability sampling requires a sampling frame (a listing of all
study units).

 Only probability sampling provides a statistical basis for saying

that a sample is representative of the target population.

 And a sample will be representative of the population from which

it is drawn, if all members of the population have an equal
chance of being included in the sample.
 Probability sampling
 In summary:
 Probability samples are more representative than any other type
of sample.
 Sampling errors can be calculated only for probability samples.
 Probability samples rely on random process, i.e. the selection
process operates in a truly random method.
 Since each element has an equal chance or probability of being
selected it is possible to get consistent and unbiased estimate of
the population parameter.
 Probability sampling
 Several types of probability sampling methods could be
identified:
 Simple Random Sampling Technique
 Systematic sampling Technique
 Stratified Sampling Technique
 Cluster Sampling Technique.
 Hybrid Sampling
 Probability sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS): each person in a population has
the same chance of being included in a sample as every other person.
 each element of the population has an equal chance of being selected
into the sample.
 This is the simplest and easiest method of probability sampling.
 It assumes that an accurate sampling frame exists.
 Selection could be done either by using table of random numbers or
by the lottery method.
 Probability sampling
 Example: simple random sampling for household surveys
 Population = all households in the country
 Sampling frame = the list of all households (20 million in
Ethiopia?)
 Sample size = say we have resources to cover only 20,000
households
 Sampling fraction 20,000/20,000,000 or 0.1%
 Select randomly 20,000 households from the long list of
20,000,000 households
 Probability sampling
 Merits of SRS
 No investigator bias or discretion
 Help us to obtain a more representative sample
 Can produce better estimates for the population
 Limitations
 It needs up-to date list of the population units
 Units selected might be scattered geographically, hence, high
cost of data collection
 Probability sampling
2. Systematic Sampling Technique
 In systematic sampling individuals are chosen at regular
intervals (for example every kth) from the sampling frame.
 The first item is selected randomly and then the remaining
units will automatically be selected with some predetermined
pattern.
 A sampling interval (the standard distance between the
elements selected in the sample) identified.
 Simplicity and flexibility are its major advantages.
 Probability sampling
 Steps to draw a systematic sample:
 Calculate K (the sampling interval).
 Select a number between 1 and K at random, say that
number is r.
 Then this means we select the rth element at random.
 Then the rth, (r+K) th, (r+2K) th, …, [r+(n-1)K] th
elements of the population will be selected in our
sample.
 Probability sampling
 E.g., a systematic sample is to be selected from 1200 students of a
school.
 The sample size to be selected is 100.
 The sampling fraction is: 100/1200= sample size/study population =
1/12
 The sampling interval is therefore 12.
 The first student in the sample is chosen randomly, for example by
blindly picking one out of twelve pieces of paper, numbered 1 to 12.
 If number 6 is picked - every twelfth student will be included –i.e.
6, 18, 30, 42, etc.
 Probability sampling
3. Stratified Sampling
 Useful when we have heterogeneous populations.
 One disadvantage of the SRS is that small groups in which the
researcher is interested may not appear in the sample
 Stratified sampling divides a population into the appropriate strata
and a simple random sample taken using either SRS or SS
techniques from each stratum.
 The elements in a stratum are supposed to be homogeneous with
respect to the given characteristics.
 Probability sampling
The reasons for stratifying
1. To increase a sample’s statistical efficiency (smaller standard
errors-less variation).
2. To provide adequate data for analyzing the various subpopulation.
3. To enable different research methods and procedures to be used in
different strata.
4. The absence or poor quality of a sampling frame makes it necessary
to first select a sample of geographical units, and then to construct a
sampling frame only within those selected units.
 Probability sampling
 Multiple stage stratified random sampling could also be
considered.
 E.g., in the household survey we may be interested to
have sufficient number of households from each region
of Ethiopia;
 So stratify by region!
How to Stratify
 Three major decisions must be made in order to stratify
the given population into some mutually exclusive
groups.
 Probability sampling
 (1) What stratification base to use: stratification would be
based on the principal variable under study such as
income, age, education, sex, location, religion, etc.

 (2) How many strata to use: there is no precise answer as

to how many strata to use.
 The more strata the closer one would be to come to
maximizing inter-strata differences and minimizing
intra-strata variances.
 Probability sampling
(3) What strata sample size to draw: different approaches could be used:
 One could adopt a proportionate sampling procedure.

 If the number of units selected from the different strata are

proportional to the total number of units of the strata then we
have proportionate sampling.

 Or non-proportional sampling where the number of items

studied in each stratum is disproportionate to the respective
proportion of the stratum in the population.
 Probability sampling
4. Cluster Sampling:
 It may be difficult or impossible to take a simple random
sample because a complete sampling frame does not exist,
or
 Due to logistical difficulties
 E.G: interviewing people who are scattered over a
large area may be too time-consuming.
 The selection of groups of study units (clusters) instead of
the selection of study units individually is called
CLUSTER SAMPLING.
 It is cost effective (High economic efficiency)
 Probability sampling
 Similar to stratified sampling- you need to divide the
population into discrete groups.
 For instance, if the total area of interest is a big one it can
be divided into a number of smaller non –overlapping areas
(clusters) and some of the clusters are selected randomly.
 Clusters are often geographic units (e.g., districts,
villages) or organizational units (e.g., clinics, etc.).
 The primary sampling unit is not units of the population but
groups within the population (clusters)
 Probability sampling

 Example: sampling for household survey in Addis Ababa

 Probably no complete sampling frame and costly to cover through simple
random sampling Procedures

 Randomly select sub-cities (clusters)

 Randomly select kebeles from selected sub-cities (clusters)

 Then randomly select households from the selected kebeles

 Non-probability sampling
Non-Probability Sampling: selection is non random i.e., sampling units/elements
have unequal chance of being selected

 Samples are chosen based on judgment regarding the characteristics of the

target population.

 Sometimes a probability sample is infeasible.

 Example: If we want to conduct a lengthy experiment using human subjects
we use whoever is willing to participate.
 E.g. a study of drug users (hearsay, criminal records)
Non-probability sampling
 Conditions to use non-probability sampling.
 1st, if there is no desire to generalize to a population
parameter.

 2nd, because of cost and time requirements.

 probability sampling could be prohibitively
expensive since it requires more planning and
repeated callbacks.

 3rd, probability sampling may break down in its

applications.
 The total population may not be available.
 Non-probability sampling
(1) Convenience or accidental sampling: The method selects
anyone who is convenient.
 Units that are convenient for the investigator are
selected (e.g. volunteers)
 It can produce highly un-representative samples.

 Such samples are cheap, however, biased and full of

systematic errors.
 Example: the person on the street interview
conducted by television programs.
Non-probability sampling
(2) Quota Sampling: subgroups are identified and a specified
number of individuals from each group are included in
the research – based on certain criteria.

 Identify categories of people (e.g., male, female) then

decides how many to get from each category.
 Example: In a school, find 10 elementary teachers,
10 middle school and 10 high school teachers.
 is used in opinion pollsters, marketing research and
other similar research areas.

 No randomization – difficult to know the sampling error.

Non-probability sampling
(3) Purposive or Judgment sampling
 When we select a limited number of informants,
strategically so that their in-depth information will
give optimal insight into an issue is known as
purposeful sampling.

 It uses the judgment of the expert in selecting cases.

 participants are selected because of some desirable
characteristics, like expertise in the area.

 Could be useful when used by skilled investigator

 Non-probability sampling
(4) Snowball (Network) Sampling – chain sampling
 This is a method for identifying and selecting the cases
in a network.
 You start with one or two information-rich key
informants and ask them if they know persons who
know a lot about your topic of interest.
 Contact the first few and ask them for names of others, and
so on.

 Useful when there is no sampling frame

 E.g., Becker’s (1963) study of marijuana users
 Illegal migrants, sex workers, drug users, etc.
Problems in Sampling
 Survey errors: The discrepancy between statements from
survey estimates and the reality (the true value) is called
survey errors.

 There are two types of survey errors.

 sampling errors and non-sampling errors.

 Survey error is the sum of the two.

Problems in Sampling
 Sampling errors are errors which are attributable to
sampling, and which therefore, are not present in a census.
 It is not a mistake
 Can be controlled by well developed sampling
theory

 Even when probability sampling is employed, it is unlikely

that one will end up with a perfectly representative sample.

 Sampling errors can be calculated only for probability

samples.
Problems in Sampling
 Sampling error is related to confidence intervals.

 A narrower confidence interval means more precise

estimates of the population for a given level of confidence.

 The confidence interval for the true population mean is

given by: 
Mean z
n
 The sampling error is given by:

z
n
Problems in Sampling
 Non-sampling error: Such errors are present whether it is
sampling or census survey.
 these include all errors apart from sampling error and
are mostly mistakes by one party or another.

Non-Sampling Error includes:

 Non-coverage error
 Wrong population is being sampled
 Non response error
 Instrument error
 Interviewer’s error
Problems in Sampling
Non-Coverage sampling error: This refers to sample frame
defect.
 Omission of part of the target population (e.g., soldiers,
students living on campus, people in hospitals,
prisoners, households without a telephone in telephone
surveys, etc.).

The wrong population is sampled

 Researchers must always be sure that the group being
sampled is drawn from the population they want to
generalize about or the intended population.
Problems in Sampling
Non response error – Common in self-administered surveys
 This error occurs when you are not able to find those
whom you were supposed to study.

 Some people refuse to be interviewed because they are

ill, are too busy, or simply do not trust the interviewer.

 When one is forced to interview substitutes, an

unknown bias is introduced.
Problems in Sampling
Instrument error
 The instrument in sampling survey is the device in
which we collect data- usually a questionnaire.

 When a question is badly asked or worded, the

resulting error is called instrument error.

 Example: leading questions or carelessly worded

questions may be misinterpreted by some
researchers.
Problems in Sampling
Interviewer Error :
 Enumerators can distort the results of a survey by in-
appropriate suggestions, word emphasis, tone of voice
and question rephrasing.
 Cheating by enumerators -with only limited training
and under little direct supervision.
 Perceived social distance between enumerator and
respondent also has a distorting effect.

 E.G: questions about sexual behavior might be

differently answered depending on the gender of
the interviewer.
Thank You !