TOPIC 1

APPLICATION OF STATISTICAL
METHODS
Statistics refers to a scientific and
systematic/organized method of collecting,
recording, summarizing, analyzing and
representation of numerical data in precise
manner.
 Or
• The study of methods of collecting, recording,
summarizing, analyzing and presentation of
data in precise manner by using numbers
Or
• A science of observing, collecting, recording,
summarizing, analyzing and presentation of
data in precise manner by using numbers.
 NATURE OF DATA

Statistical data according to their varied nature

include the following:-
• Discrete data
• Continuous data
• Individual data
• Grouped data
 Statistical data according to scale of
measurements
This aspect is considerably on how the values of
statistical data are given
include the following:-
• Nominal data
• Ordinal data
• The interval data
• Ratio data
 • Discrete data

It is a form of statistical data for variables whose

values expressed or given in whole numbers.
i.e. The data is for cases which do not exist in
fractions.
For instance; the data for the number of people
which can be given as 102 people who can not
be divided into either decimal or fractions
 • Continuous data

The data for the variables whose values can be

expressed in fraction or decimals. In this type
of data, any value within the range can be
given.
For instance; the data for temperature, rainfall,
pressure, distance, growth rate, and other
cases which also reflect the same. They are
presented in continuity manner of fraction or
decimals
 • Individual data
The set of data which provides specific value to
every item in a sample given.
For instance; Juma has weight of 47 kg. They
consider every item as an important entity
and singly presented
 • Grouped data
It is a form of data which gives values in range or
classes. This type of data is of no precise as
exact figures are quoted but values range in
groups.
The classic example of the grouped data is that
of population distribution by age and sex
which may appear as follow:-
AGE FEMALES MALES

0-9 14,897 14,567

10-19 15,432 14,329

20 – 29 17,987 13,098

30 – 39 16,876 17,654
 According to scale of measurements
• Nominal data
The type of data according to scale
of measurement of which the values are given
according to the name of items in a given
sample. e.g. 10 apples, 5 oranges, 7 mangoes,
5 banana and 2 cherish
 • Ordinal data

The data of which the values are given in an

order of magnitude of observation in such a
way the numbers indicate the rank order
among objects. i.e. the values are commonly
given in either ascending or descending order
e.g. 91, 82, 79, 74, 68, 67, 58, 54 and 49.
 • The interval data

The data of which values are

given in range at regular
distance by being grouped.
e.g. The data for population
distribution by age and sex
expressed in interval scale.
 • Ratio data

The data of which the

values given show the
number of items
relatively to another e.g.
1:3, 2:5, 3:7. e.t.c.
 VARIABLES
Variable is an attribute that has values of
which fluctuate/CHANGE under a given
condition . For instance; production is a
considerable variable as whose values
change under conditions of policies like;
climate, technology, marketability and
other which may make the same.
• Variables are classified into dependent
and independent variables.
 Dependent variable
is the one whose values fluctuate due to the
force of another variable. i.e. the variable
whose values change irregularly as controlled
by another variable. For instance; production
is one among the most pronounced variables
as changes due to the force of other variables
like climate, level of technology applied,
demand of the products produced, and others
which might cause it to change.
 Independent variable
is the one whose values change
on its own without being
influenced by another
variable. i.e. the variable
whose values change steadily
and regularly e.g. distance
 TYPES OF STATISTICS
Statistics being the scientific and
systematic methods dealing with
numerical facts is broadly categorized
into two depending on how data
handled/switched. The main broad
categories include;
descriptive and
inferential statistics.
 Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics deal with

summarization of collected
data from the field. The actual
collection of data can be
population by conducting
census, rainfall, temperature.
 Inferential statistics
Inferential statistics deal with
drawing conclusions from sample
of data collected
Or
Making predictions or probabilities
of future trend/development.
 STATISTICAL DATA

DATA
The information which is presented
in numerical form is known as
statistical data.
• Primary data
• Secondary data
 Primary data
These are the numerical facts collected from the
field or handled for the first time. i.e. They are
the first hand or original information. The data
are not available in the existing sources like
books. Primary statistical data are handled by
the techniques of interview, the use of
questionnaires, observation, counting,
measurements and other methods.
 Secondary data
These are the numerical facts derived from the
stored sources. The data were compiled by
other people who carried out research. The
sources of this type of data include; text
books, reference books, magazines, maps,
video tapes, audio tapes, and other sources
which deliver the same.
SOURCES OF STATISTICAL DATA

There is two categories;

Primary sources
Secondary sources.
Some of the primary
techniques (sources) providing statistical data
include the following:-
• Through conducting Interviews
• Administering Questionnaires
• Direct field observation

Secondary sources
Involves the seeking of data that has already gathered
from the field.
• The collection involves reference to past
publications and official records.
 Interview method

The technique of interview involves the collection of

data through the asking of questions verbally by
researcher to a respondent.
Or
Is a verbal interaction between an interviewer and
interviewee designed to list the information, news,
opinion and feelings they have on their own.
Generally an interview is an oral organization of
questions asked to respondents by a researcher.
 Questionnaire method

Questionnaire is a set of research questions

printed on a piece of paper then presented to
respondents to replay the questions in writing.
It is thus; questionnaire method is a way
(means) of gathering statistical details done
with the use of questionnaires given to the
respondents to answer.
 Field observation method

It is a method of gathering primary research

data which done by a researcher looking over
the phenomena. It is of two types and
include; participant and non participant
observation.
 Literature review method
It is a systematic survey of the past documentary
sources prepared by other researchers related
to the study. The documentary sources
include; text books, statistical obstruct census
report, research articles, journals, news paper,
and official reports.
Other methods for
data collection
include; .measuremen
ts, .counting and
the .carrying out of
experiments.
Application of statistics in geography offers the following vital
significance

• enable the geographers to handle large sets of

data, by Summarizes massive information by
making more simple
• facilitate the process of data computation
techniques
• Make easy the process of data comparison.
• facilities the process of drawing relationship
between the geographical variables like;
climate and production, population and
time; rainfall and temperature etc.
Significances cont..

• makes easy the process of data storage inform

of numbers, tables, graphs, diagrams, and
maps
• makes the geographical data be clearly
understood and easy for being analyzed and
interpreted.
 STATISTICAL MEASURES
It is thus; statistical measures refer to the
computed numerical values used to make data
analysis as related to other values in a data set
provided.

Calculated
 Categories of statistical measures
Measures of central tendency
Measures of variability

 Measures of central tendency

These are the measurements which show the
central values .
And include; arithmetic mean, mode, median
and Range
 Arithmetic mean
Is an average of all values in a set of
distribution. It is determined by
adding up all values and divided by
the sum of observation added.
Arithmetic mean is used to assess
the distribution value weather was
high or low.
 Computation of the arithmetic mean

Computation of the arithmetic mean depends

up on the nature of data given whether
ungrouped or grouped.
For the ungrouped data set; arithmetic mean is
computed by applying the following formula

x.+x..+x…+xn
n
• Where by:

N = The total number of observation added.

• Example:
Find the arithmetic mean for the following set of
data.
5,7,10,12,13,14,15,7, and 2.
 Solution
The arithmetic mean for the given set of data
above is calculated as follow:
5+7+10+12+13+14+15+7+2=85

N=9

Thus: The Arithmetic mean = 9.4

For the grouped data set; the arithmetic
mean is calculated by the following
application:

• Where by;
• X = Class mark
• f = Frequency Real values
• Example:
Find the arithmetic mean for the following
scores of marks
Class Interval F X fx
91-95 0 93 0
86-90 1 88 88
81-85 6 83 498
76-80 10 78 780
71-75 15 73 1095
66-70 34 68 2312
61-65 22 63 1386
56-60 10 58 580
51-55 2 53 106
 Solution:-

According to the given data;

fx = 6845
= 100

Thus; the arithmetic mean = 68.45

 Advantages of the Arithmetic mean

• It is easy to calculate and the majority of

people use to understand it
• It is used to check the values if high or low
• It can be used for further calculation. For
instance; arithmetic mean is used to calculate
standard deviation.
 Disadvantage of the arithmetic mean
• Arithmetic mean has a big weakness of being
pulled towards an outlier (extreme scores).
• It needs high mathematical knowledge to
calculate arithmetic mean for the grouped
data set.
 ii. MODE

Mode is a value number which occurs most

frequently in a data set given.
Or
Is the most commonly attained measurement
value in a data set
Or
Is the measurement value that appears most in a
particular variable among a sample of subjects.
 Calculation of a mode

Determination of a mode is depend much up on

the nature of data set whether ungrouped or
grouped.
For the ungrouped data set; mode is
obtained by taking the number that appears
most frequently or the one that has highest
frequency than the rest
 Example;

Determine the mode for the following data set.

2, 4, 2, 2, 5, 6, 4
Value Concentration

2 3
Unimodal
4 2
5 1
6 1

Thus; the mode for the data set given = 2

• Note
• Sometimes; a given data set may have more
than one modes or no more at all. The one
mode obtained in a set of distribution is
known as unimodal or bimodal. If two modes
obtained from data set; it must be described
as bimodal.
• Example:
(1) 2, 5, 4, 3, 5, 6, 6, 8, 5, 6.
The modes for the data set are 5 and 6

bimodal
(2) 4, 9, 8, 5, 6, 7
The given data set has no mode.

For thegrouped data ; mode is

assessed by the following application.
Whereby:
L = The lower limit of the modal class
t1 = The excess of the modal frequency over the
frequency of the next lower class
t2 = the excess of the modal frequency over the
frequency of the next higher class
(i) = the class interval
• Example;-
• The tabled data below shows the score of
marks in geography subject test form V
students
CLASS INTERVAL FREQUENCY

40 – 44 7

45 – 49 8

50 – 54 11

55 – 59 10

60 – 64 4
• Solution
• The mode for the given data set above is
calculated as follow:-
• According to the given data set;
• L = 49.5
• t1 = 3
• t2 = 1
• i=5
• Then;
• 49.5 + (0.75 x 5)
• 49.5 + 3.75 = 53.25
• Thus; the mode = 53.25
• Advantages of a mode
• It helps to make determination of
predominance of a certain geographical
feature in a place.
• It helps to know number of occurrence of the
values in data set.

• Disadvantages of a mode
• It needs high mathematical knowledge to
calculate mode for the grouped data set
• It is unreliable measures of central tendency
as a data set may have more than one modes
• MEDIAN
• Median refers to a point value that
divides the other values in a set of
distribution into two equal parts after
to have been arranged in ascending
or descending order.
• Computation of the median
• The computation of the median
chiefly depends on the nature of data
set given if ungrouped or grouped.
• For the ungrouped data set,
the calculation of median should
further take into account the nature
of data set given whether odd or
even.
• If the ungrouped data set is odd; the
median is just the middle value and
it is obtained after the value
numbers to have been arranged in
ascending or descending order.
• E.g.
• 1, 2, 1, 4, 6, 5, 3
• Solution
• The ascending order of the values
is as follow:-
• 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
• Thus; the median = 3.
• If the data set is even; median is the
average of the two middle values and
obtained after the value numbers to have
been arranged in ascending descending
order.
• E.g.
• 1,4,5,2,7,8,3,2
• The ascending order for the values is as
follows:-
• 1,2,2,3,4,5,7,8
• Thus; the median = 3.5
Median determination for the
grouped data
For the grouped data; median is
determined by applying the following
formula:-
 Where by:-
L = The lower limit of the median
class
N = Total number of observation
nb = the number of elements in the
classes below the median class
nw = number of elements in the
median class
i = class interval
 Example:-
The tabled data below: shows the score of
marks in geography subject for form IV
students.
Class interval Frequency
40 – 44 7
45 – 49 8
50 – 54 11
55 – 59 10
60 – 64 4
 Example:-
The tabled data below; shows the score of marks in
geography subject for form V students.
According to the given data
L = 49.5
N = 40
nb = 15
nw = 11
i=5
nb = the number of elements in the classes below the median
class
nw = number of elements in the median class
i = class interval = 5
49.5 + (0.45 x 5)
49.5 + 2.25 = 51.75
Thus the median = 51.75
 Advantages of median
• It helps to understand the middle value among
of the numerous values in a certain data set.
• It is easy to make determination particularly
for the simple data set.
Disadvantages of the median
• If the values are numerous, it becomes
cumbersome to arrange in ascending or
descending order to get the median
• It needs high skill to determine median for the
grouped data set.
 MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
These are the ones which asses the
variation / difference of values in data
set. The common measures of variability
include the following:-
o Range
o Standard deviation
o Variance
o Mean deviation
RANGE
Range is the difference between
highest and lowest values in a
given set of distribution.
It is used to assess the existing
variation/ difference between the
highest score and lowest score.
Calculation of the range
Calculation of a range also considers
the nature of a data set given
whether ungrouped or grouped.
For the ungrouped data set, range is
calculated by subtracting the lowest
value from the highest value in a
data set given.
 Example:-
Determine the range for the
following data set 4, 2, 3, 5, 6, 4, 8
Solution
The range for the data set given
is computed as following:-
Range = Highest value – lowest
value
According to the given data set:-
· Highest value = 8
· Lowest value = 2
· 8–2=6
· Thus; The range = 6
With the result of range; if it is high
implies greater variation. If the range
is small, it implies there is small
variation.
 For the grouped data;

range is calculated by subtracting the

lowest class mark from the highest
subtracting the lowest lower
boundary from the highest lower
boundary or by subtracting the
lowest higher boundary from the
higher boundary.
Example:-
Determine the range for the following data
set.
Class interval
10 – 14
15 – 19
20 – 24
25 – 29
30 – 34
35 – 39
 Solution
• The range for the data set given is
calculated as follow:
• Range = Highest class mark –
Lowest class
• Determination of the class mark
Class interval Class marks

10 – 14 12
15 – 19 17
20 – 24 22
25 – 29 27
30 – 34 32
35 – 39 37
According to the computed class marks
· Highest class mark = 37
· Lowest class mark = 12
37 – 12 = 25,
Thus, the range = 25
• Advantages of a range
• Range gives a quick rough estimate of
variability
• It is simple to calculate and the majorities are
much aware with it.
• Disadvantages of a range
• It considers only two values of highest and
lowest and thus not sensitive to the total
distribution
• It is affected by the extreme values
 Standard deviation
• DEVIATION
Deviation is the difference between the value
and the mean. It is computed by subtracting a
mean from the value.

• Whereby:-
• X = value given in a set of distribution
• X = average of all values
Standard deviation
Refers to the common difference of all
values from the mean. It is the root mean
square deviation from the mean. It is the
measure which determines how far or
scattered are the values from the mean.
Standard deviation is represented by
sigma symbol of
• Computation of a standard deviation
• Calculation of a standard deviation also
depends on the nature of dataset
given whether ungrouped or grouped.
• For the ungrouped data; standard
deviation is calculated by the following
application.
 Where by:-
X = value in a set of distribution

N = The total number of observation

• Example:-
• Calculate the standard deviation for the
following data set.
• 3, 2, 1, 4, 6
• Solution
• Mean determination
X 3 2 1 4 6

X- -0.2 -1.2 -2.2 0.8 2.8

X-X2 0.04 1.44 4.84 0.64 7.84

Then
 Hence; The SD = 1.541
For the grouped data set; standard deviation is computed by the
following application:-
 Example:-
Calculate the SD for the following set of grouped data.

Class interval Frequency

40 – 44 7
45 – 49 8
50 – 54 11
55 – 59 10
60 – 64 4
 Procedure:
· Determination of the mean

Class F X Fx
interval
40 – 44 7 42 294
45 – 49 8 47 376
50 – 54 11 52 572
55 – 59 10 57 570
60 – 64 4 62 248
 Hence; 51.5
Then:-

X 42 47 52 57 62

X – X -9.5 -4.5 0.5 5.5 10.5

(X-X)2 90.25 20.25 0.25 30.25 110.25

F(X – 631.7 162 2.75 302.5 441

X) 2
5
 = 1540

= 40

Thus; The SD = 6.204

Note:-
The square root of SD is known as variance.
Its computation is done by the following
applications which also consider the nature
of data set whether ungrouped or grouped.
For the ungrouped data; variance is
computed by the following application:-
 MEAN DEVIATION
Mean deviation is the average of all
deviation values. Or is the amount
by which the individual values
deviate from mean irrespective of its
sign. It is computed by dividing the
sum of all deviations irrespective of
signs by the number of observation.
• Calculation of mean deviation
• Calculation of a mean deviation
also depends on the nature of
data set given whether
ungrouped or grouped.
• For the ungrouped data set; the
mean deviation is calculated by
the following application:-
 Example:-
Determine the mean deviation for the following
data set. 4, 7, 8, 2, 9, 6
Solution
Mean determination
• 4 + 7 + 8 +2 + 9 + 6 = 36

Hence; the mean = 6

 Deviations determination
X X– D
4 4–6 2
7 7–6 1
8 8–6 2
2 2–6 4
9 9–6 3
6 6–6 0
 The sum of deviations determination.

2 + 1 + 2 +4 + 3 + 0 = 12

Thus; the mean deviation = 2

• For the grouped data set, mean deviation is
computed by the following application:-

Example:-
Class interval Frequency

40 – 44 7

45 – 49 8

50 – 54 11

55 – 59 10

60 – 64 4
 Determination of the mean

Class F X Fx
interval
40 – 44 7 42 294
45 – 49 8 47 376
50 – 54 11 52 572
55 – 59 10 57 570
60 – 64 4 62 248
Hence; the mean = 51.5

Determination of the
deviations.
• Where by:
• X = Class mark

X X– D F Fd

42 42 – 51.5 9.5 7 66.5

47 47 – 51.5 4.5 8 36

52 52 – 51.5 0.5 8 36

57 57 – 51.5 5.5 10 55

62 62 – 51.5 10.5 4 42
 · The sum of (fd) determination

• 66.5 + 36 + 5.5 + 55 + 42 = 205

• Then;

Thus; The mean deviation = 5.125

WAYS OF PRESENTING STATISTICAL DATA

Data can be presented in several

ways. These include
pictorial charts,
Block diagrams,
Tables,
Graphs and
Maps.
BAR GRAPHS AND LINE GRAPHS

There are various types of bar and line

graphs used to present geographical
data. The main bar and line graphs
include:
1. Simple bar and line graphs
2. Grouped bar and line graphs
3. Compound bar and line graphs
4. Divergent bar and line graph
 A) LINE (LINEAR) GRAPHS
Line graphs have unique properties that
distinguish them from other graphs. The
properties of line graphs are as follows:
1. The graphs are drawn by plotting a
dependent variable against an independent
variable and points are joined by a line.
2. The values on the y-axis start at point
zero.
General Procedures for Drawing Line Graphs

1. Get the required data for plotting the graph.

2. Identify the independent and dependent
variable. Statistically, the independent
variables are placed on the x-axis while the
dependent variables are placed on the y-axis.
3. Decide on the vertical scale depending on
the graph space and values of the
independent variable available.
4. Decide on the horizontal spacing of the
graph according to graph space available.
5. Draw and divide the vertical and horizontal
axes depending on the respective scales.
6. Plot and join the points to get the graph.
7. Write the title of the graph you have drawn.
8. Indicate the scale of the graph.
9. Show the key for the graph if need be.
Line Graphs can be sub-divided into:

1. Simple line graphs

2. Group (comparatives) line graphs
3. Compound line graphs
4. Divergent line graphs
 1. SIMPLE LINE GRAPH

Presenting the statistical data by a simple line graph is the most

common and popular method. The simple line graphs are easy to
construct and interpret. They have many uses which include
showing temperature, farm outputs, population, and mineral
production, among others.
Construction Procedure:
• The graph can be drawn after getting the required data.
Consider the following table which shows the average monthly
temperature recorded in a certain weather station:
• Average monthly temperature for station
X
 The following procedures may be used:
1. Identify the variables. The dependent
variable is temperature and the independent
variable is months.
2. Determine a vertical scale. Assume that the
graph space available is 6 cm vertically. Vertical
scale = maximum value of the divided by the
graph space available e.g. 30°C/6 cm = 5°C per
centimeter. Therefore, in the vertical axis (x-axis),
1 cm will represent 5°C
3. Determine the horizontal scale (y-axis)
depending on the available space. Let, for
instance, 1 cm represent one month.
4. Draw both axes and label them: y-
axis for temperature and x-axis for
months.
5. Plot the points and join them by a
smooth line to make a curve.
6. Insert the title and scale.
Simple Line Graph showing Monthly Temperature for
Station X.
Scale
Vertical – 1 cm:5°C
Horizontal – 1 cm:1 month
 Advantages of Simple Line Graphs
1. They are easy to draw, read and interpret.
2. They show specific values of data, so if you are given one variable
the other can easily be determined.
3. They show patterns in data clearly, meaning that they visibly show
how one variable is affected by the other as it increases of decreases.
4. They enable the viewer to make predictions about the results of data.
So they allow for determination of intermediate or continuing values.
5. It is easy to read the exact values against plotted points on straight
line graphs.
6. A broken scale can be used when the value starts at a large number.
 Disadvantages of simple line graphs

1. They can only be used to show the data of one item

over time.

2. One can change the data of a line graph by not using

consistent scales on the axis.
3. They can give a wrong impression on the continuity
of data even when there are periods when data is not
available.

4. They do not give a clear visual impression of the

actual quantities.
 2. GROUP LINE GRAPH

A group line graph is also known by the

following terms:
- Comparative line graph
- Composite line graph
- Multiple line graph
- Polygraph
• A group line graph involves drawing more
than one line on the same statistical graph.
It shows the relationship between sets of
similar statistics for two or more items.
Usefulness of a Group
Line Graph
1. Comparing different values or trends in two or more data
variables.
2. Examining the possibility of a relationship existing between the
distributions of a number of variables over time.
3. Comparing the distribution of the same variable at different
places.
Construction :

The method of drawing a group line graph

is the same as for a simple line graph.
Therefore, to draw each single line in a
group line graph, follow similar steps used
for construction of the simple line graph.
 The following things should be
considered before drawing the graph:
1. The lines drawn should not be uniform in color, thickness,
general appearance, etc (See the graph below in which each line
has a different color).
2. The number of lines that a graph can accommodate should not
exceed 5, meaning that not more than 5 items should be compared
in a single graph.
The following table shows banana production (in tonnes) by three
villages in Ingwe Division, Tarime district. These data have been
used to plot the group (comparative) line graph as shown below:
 Banana production by three villages

Group Line Graph showing Maize production by three villages between 2000 and 2002
Advantages of Group Line Graph
1. The quantity of each component is shown clearly by different line
shadings.
2. Time and space are saved since all the line graphs are drawn at
ago as a group.

Disadvantages of Group Line Graph

1. The lines can be overcrowded and hence become difficult to
read and interpret if many data are involved.
2. It does not give a clear visual impression of actual quantities.
 3. COMPOUND LINE GRAPH
A compound line graph is used to analyze
the total and the individual inputs of the
specific commodities or economic
sectors. The graph involves drawing two
or more lines, each line corresponding to
one item in a different year or region. The
items are differentiated from each other or
one another by shading differently.
Construction
The table below is used for construction
of the graph. The table contains
hypothetical figures for mineral exports
between 2010 and 2012.
Procedure
1. Simplify the data to make the
presentation work easy by dividing each
value by 1000.
2. Add the values for each year to get the
cumulative export:
2010 = 10+16+20 = 46
2011 = 20+25+32 = 77
2012 = 25+35+40 =100
These values will be used to determine the
uppermost height of the graph. They will also
help estimate the scale to be used. In case of
the above data, the highest value is 100. So if
we want to use the scale of 1 cm to 1 tonne
(1000 tonnes in reality), the uppermost height of
our graph will be 100 cm (see the graph drawn)
3. Plot the values for mineral exports against years on a
graph. Usually the line graph for data with the highest
values is drawn first. Thus, first draw the line graph for
tanzanite since it has the highest values, followed by
that of gold and finally diamond.
4. Draw the second line graph above the first one to
show the next component. To get the values for plotting
the second line graph, add the values of the first item (in
this case, tanzanite) to that of the second item (gold) for
each year, thus:
2010 = 20+6 =36
2011 = 32+25 =57
2012 = 40+35 =75
5. Draw the line graph for the last item (diamond) above
that of the second item. To get the values for plotting
this graph, add the values for the second item to those
of the last item, thus:
2010 = 36+10 =46
2011 = 57+20 =67
2012 = 75+25 =100
6. Shade the component parts between the line graphs
using different shadings as shown.
7. Label the axes, show the key and indicate the scale
used to construct the graph.
Advantages of Compound Line Graph
1. Total values are shown clearly and easily.
2. It gives good visual impression.
3. Combining all graphs in one saves time and space.
Disadvantages of Compound Line Graph
1. Graph construction is difficult and time-consuming.
2. It involves a lot of calculations which are difficult and time-
consuming.
3. It is difficult to read and interpret the value for any one
commodity for any particular year.
 3. DIVERGENT LINE GRAPH

A divergent line graph is a line graph which shows

how variables deviate from the mean. The mean is represented
by zero axis drawn horizontally across the graph paper .
 Construction

1. Sum up the values of all items or

commodities. 1000 + 1500 + 500 + 3000
= 6000
2. Calculate the arithmetic mean (average)
of the values. 6000/4 = 1500 Thus the
arithmetic mean = 1500
3. Calculate the deviation from the mean of
each value as shown in the table below.
Deviation from the mean value
4. Plot the graph using the values of deviation from the mean; and remember
to include the title and scale of the graph.
Advantages of Divergent Line Graph
1. It clearly shows how items fluctuate from the mean.
2. It compares the values of the items and hence facilitates a
sound conclusion.
3. It shows both the positive (profit) and negative (loss)
phenomena.
4. It is easy to construct, read and interpret.

Disadvantages of Divergent Line Graph

1. It involves many calculations and hence time-consuming.
2. It might be difficult to interpret if one lacks statistical skills.
3. It is applicable for only one item per graph.
 B) BAR GRAPHS

A bar graph is also called bar chart or columnar graph. This

method is used to present data which are not continuous. This
means that in a bar graph there is no relationship between or
among data.
Bar graphs emphasize individual amounts and their relative
variations. When drawing such graphs, bar width in a graph is
kept constant while bar lengths change in size as per the
amount of the independent variable in question. Though the
bars can also be drawn horizontally, they are usually drawn
vertically. The bars should be separated from one another by a
space
Types of Bar Graphs

1. Simple bar graphs

2. Group or comparative bar graphs
3. Compound bar graphs
4. Divergent bar graphs
 1. SIMPLE BAR GRAPH
A simple bar graph is drawn to show a single item per
bar. It mainly represents simple data. Consider the
data in the table below which shows the value of sisal
exported by Tanzania between 1900 and 1993:
 Construction
1. Choose the appropriate scale. However, note that the table
below is not drawn to scale – it was drawn using the computer.
All hand-drawn graphs must indicate the scale used. For,
example, in our graph below, we might have chosen 1 cm to
represent 10,000 tones, in which case we could obtain the
values 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 that we could have used to plot the
graph.
2. Draw the axes and insert the bars. Note that all the bars must
have the same width and spacing.
3. Shade the bars uniformly by using shade, lines, crosses, dots,
etc.
4. Insert vertical and horizontal scales and the title.
Simple Bar Graph showing Tanzania sisal export
Scale: 1 cm to 50,000 tones
Advantages of a Simple Bar Graph
1. It is simple to construct, read and interpret.
2. It has a good visual impression.
3. It can be used to compare how the amount of an item varies
from time to time.

Disadvantages of a Simple Bar Graph

1. It is limited to only one item or commodity and hence not suitable
for massive data.
2. Not suitable for continuous data such as temperature.
 2. GROUP BAR GRAPH
A comparative/group bar graph consists of several bars drawn
side by side on the same chart for the purpose of comparison.
The technique involves grouping of bars in a chart. The graph can
be used to show how production of certain commodities varies
each year
Construction:
• The procedure for construction of the comparative bar graph is
similar to that of drawing the simple bar graph except that the
simple bar graph contains a single bar while the comparative
bar graph comprises of multiple bars.
• Consider the data in the table below, showing agricultural
production in metric tonnes.
The graph for the data is as shown below.
Group (comparative) Bar Graph showing Crop Yields in ‘000 kg (1986 - 1988)
Advantages of a Group Bar Graph
1. The total values are expressed well for illustration of points.
2. It is easy to construct, read and interpret.
3. The importance of each component is shown clearly.

Disadvantages of a Group Bar Graph

1. It is difficult to compare the totals of each item/component.
2. Trends such as fall and rise cannot be shown easily
 3. COMPOUND BAR GRAPH
Compound/divided bar graph is a method
of data presentation that involves
construction of bars which are divided
into segments to show both the
individual and cumulative values of
items. The length of each segment
represents the contribution of an
individual item in the total length while
that of the whole bar represents the
total (cumulative) value of the different
items in each group.
 Construction
1. Get the data needed for presentation. For example,
consider the table below, which shows the number of
tourists who visited the named Tanzania National
Parks from 1998 to 2002.
2. Simplify the data (to make the presentation work
easy) by dividing each value by 10,000. Then add
the values to get the total for each year. The
simplified data are as shown in the table below.
3. Determine the scale of the bar length based on
the highest total value. In this case, the highest
total value is 68 (20 + 20 + 10 + 18). Recall the
construction of the compound line graph! If we
choose 1 cm to represent 1 tourist (10,000 tourists
in reality), then the length of the tallest bar will be
68 cm. Note that the maximum height of a graph
for each year equals the cumulative total values
for each year (i.e. 43, 46, 48, 59, 68).
4. Decide on the bar spacing, for example, 1
cm apart.
5. Draw the axes and label them.
6. Start by drawing bars that represent the
highest values.
7. The first sets of bars to be drawn are those
that represent the highest values. On top of
these, the second highest segments are
drawn. The last segments to be drawn are
those with the lowest values in general.
8. To make it easy to follow the rise and
fall of individual values, a soft line could
be drawn across bars to separate
individual segments.
9. Color or shade the segments to
improve the appearance and simplify
interpretation.
10. Inset the scales, key and title.
Compound (divided) Bar Graphs showing Tourist Visits in 0’000 (1998 - 2002)
Advantages of Compound (divided)
Bar Graph

1. It is easy to read and interpret as the

totals are clearly shown.
2. It gives a clear visual impression of
the total values.
3. It clearly shows the rise and fall in
the grand total values.
 Disadvantages of Compound (divided) Bar Graph

1. The values of individual segments above

the first set are difficult to establish because
they don’t start at zero. To get the correct
values of the top segments, you have to add
the figures, which is difficult for someone
not well equipped with statistical skills.
2. The graph is very difficult to construct and
interpret.
3. It is not easy to represent a large number of
components as this would involve very long
bars with many segments.
 4. DIVERGENT BAR GRAPH

A divergent bar graph is a graph which

shows the production of individual items
from the mean.
Construction
1. Calculate the arithmetic mean (average)
of the items.
2. Subtract the mean from each item.
3. Draw the graph using the resulting values.
4. Insert the scale and title of the graph.
The data below show the enrolment of Form One
students at Mara Secondary School from 1980–1985.
Study the table and present the data by a divergent
bar graph.
 Procedure

1. Find the arithmetic mean:

2. Subtract the mean from each item:
3. Choose a suitable scale and construct
the graph using the obtained values (X
– ).

Divergent Bar Graph showing Student Enrollment (1980-1985)

Advantages of Divergent Bar Graph
1. Fluctuation in values, which helps to detect the
problem in general terms, is shown.
2. It is important for comparison of positives and
negatives.
3. Profit (success) or loss (failure) can easily be
deduced.
4. They are simple to construct, read and interpret.
Disadvantages of Divergent Bar Graph
1. Graph construction is time-consuming since it
involves many steps.
2. The calculations involved may be difficult to someone
who is poor at mathematics.
3. It is limited to analysis of only one variable.
 5. PIE CHARTS OR DIVIDED CIRCLES
A divided circle
is also known as pie chart, circle chart or
pie graph. The chart involves dividing the circle into “pie
slices” to represent and show relative sizes of data. The
size of each slice or segment is always proportional to
the value it represents.
Divided circles can appear in two forms:
1. Simple divided circles.
2. Proportional divided circles.
A simple divided circle involves a single set of data
whereas the proportional divided circle involves more than
one set of data such that the circles will be proportional to
the total quantity that each circle represents.
 SIMPLE DIVIDED CIRCLE

Construction:

1. Obtain the data to work on. Study this hypothetical

record showing enrolment of Form One students in
selected Secondary Schools in Tarime District:
A table showing student enrolment in selected schools
in Tarime District
2. Calculate the total number of students as shown in the table.
3. Calculate the angle in a circle that would represent the number
of students enrolled in each school. For example, 85 out of 456
students enrolled in Nyansincha Secondary School will be
represented in the circle by a segment with an angle of 85/456
×360 = 67 degrees. This will give the following results:
4. Draw a circle of a reasonable size.
5. Using a protractor, draw a radius from the 6 o’clock
mark to the center of the circle.
6. Starting with the largest segment representing a
specific component, measure and draw its angle from
the center of the circle.
7. Do the same for other components in ascending
order.
8. Divide a circle into segments according to the sizes of
the angles.
9. Shade the segments and write the title and key of the
drawn graph.
Pie Chart/Divided Circle showing Student Enrolment in Selected Secondary Schools in
Tarime District
 Advantages of Divided Circles
1. It is easy to compare components as they are
represented by angles.
2. Analysis and interpretation of data is easy.
3. It is easy to assess the proportion of individual
components against the total.
4. Construction of this graphical representation is
relatively simple.
5. It is easy to determine the value of each component
since it is indicated on each segment.
6. Visual impression of the individual components is
clear and facilitates the understanding of the information
in the data
 Disadvantages of Divided Circles

1. It is time-consuming because it involves a lot of

calculations.
2. The represented actual values remain hidden as the
values shown on the faces of the segments may be in
percentages.
3. Where the range of data is large and involves small and
big values, accurate construction of the chart is difficult.
4. When the values of data set vary slightly, it is difficult to
visualize the proportional differences between values (as it
is the case in the pie chart above).
 The Importance of Statistics to the User

Statistics is important in geography because of the

following reasons:
1. It enables the geographers to handle large sets of
data and summarize them in a way that can be easily
understood.
2. It can also enable the geographers to make
comparisons between geographical phenomena, e.g. to
compare the amount of rainfall and agriculture
production or population distribution in different regions,
etc.
3. Statistics translates data into mathematical ways
which make the application of quantitative techniques
possible.
4. It enables the geographers to store the
information in forms of numbers, graphs,
tables, charts, etc.
5. Statistics give precise rather than
generalized information. This offers a lot
of satisfaction to the user.
6. Statistics is very useful for planning at
local and national levels. For example,
statistics on census can be used to plan
for social services.