Dr.

Hasanujjaman
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

03/06/25 EC 302 1
Review of Gate Processing
 A NOT gate inverts its single input value.
 An AND gate produces 1 if both input values
are 1.
 An OR gate produces 1 if one or the other or
both input values are 1.

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Review of Gate Processing
 An XOR gate produces 1 if one or the other
(but not both) input values are 1.
 A NAND gate produces the opposite results
of an AND gate.
 A NOR gate produces the opposite results of
an OR gate.

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Constructing Gates
 Transistor: A device that acts, depending on the
voltage level of an input signal, either as a wire that
conducts electricity or as a resistor that blocks the
flow of electricity.
 A transistor has no moving parts, yet acts like a switch.
 It is made of a semiconductor material, which is neither a
particularly good conductor of electricity, such as copper,
nor a particularly good insulator, such as rubber.

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Constructing Gates
 A transistor has three
terminals:
 A source
 A base
 An emitter, typically
connected to a ground wire
 If the electrical signal is
grounded, it is allowed to flow
through an alternative route to
the ground (literally) where it
can do no harm.
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Constructing Gates
 It turns out from the way a transistor works, the
easiest gates to create are the NOT, NAND, and
NOR gates.

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Circuits
 Two general categories:
 In a combinational circuit, the input values explicitly
determine the output.
 In a sequential circuit, the output is a function of the
input values as well as the existing state of the circuit.
 As with gates, we can describe the operations
of entire circuits using three notations:
 Boolean expressions
 logic diagrams
 truth tables
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Combinational Circuits
 Gates are combined into circuits by using the output
of one gate as the input for another.

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Combinational Circuits

 Because there are three inputs to this circuit, eight

rows are required to describe all possible input
combinations.
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Combinational Circuits
 This same circuit using Boolean algebra:

AB + AC

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Combinational Circuits
 Now let’s go the other way; let’s take a Boolean expression
and draw its circuit and its Truth Table.

 Consider the following Boolean expression:

A(B + C)
 What does it mean?

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Combinational Circuits
A (B + C)

Can you create its Truth Table?

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A (B + C)
A B C B+C A(B + C)
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1 13
A (B + C)
A B C B+C A(B + C)
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 14
A (B + C)
A B C B+C A(B + C)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 15
Combinational Circuits
 Now compare the final result column in this truth table to the
truth table for the previous example:

A(B+C) (AB + AC)

Their result columns are identical. 16

Combinational Circuits
 We have therefore just demonstrated circuit
equivalence.
 That is, both circuits produce the exact same output for
each input value combination.
 Boolean algebra allows us to apply provable
mathematical principles to help us design
logical circuits.

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Boolean Algebra
.
.
Network Outputs
Inputs .
.

.
.

 Boolean Algebra is used to describe the

relationship between inputs and outputs
 Boolean Algebra is the logic
mathematics used for understanding of
digital systems

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Example
 Draw the network diagram for

'
F  X  YZ

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Example
 Draw the network diagram for
' ' ' '
F  XYZ  XY Z  X Y

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  In the latter part of the nineteenth century, George
Boole incensed philosophers and mathematicians
alike when he suggested that logical thought could
be represented through mathematical equations .
 Computers, as we know them today, are
implementations of Boole’s Laws of Thought.
 John Atanasoff and Claude Shannon were
among the first to see this connection.

03/06/25 EC 302 21
  Boolean algebra is a mathematical system
for the manipulation of variables that can
have one of two values.
 In formal logic, these values are “true”
and “false.”
 In digital systems, these values are “on”
and “off,” 1 and 0, or “high” and “low.”
 Boolean expressions are created by
performing operations on Boolean variables.
 Common Boolean operators include AND,
OR, and NOT.
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  A Boolean operator can be
completely described using a
truth table.
 The truth table for the Boolean
operators AND and OR are
shown at the right.
 The AND operator is also known
as a Boolean product. The OR
operator is the Boolean sum.

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  The truth table for the
Boolean NOT operator is
shown at the right.
 The NOT operation is
most often designated by
an overbar. It is
sometimes indicated by a
prime mark ( ‘ ) or an
“elbow” ().

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  A Boolean function has:
• At least one Boolean variable,
• At least one Boolean operator, and
• At least one input from the set {0,1}.
 It produces an output that is also a member of
the set {0,1}.

Now you know why the binary numbering

system is so handy in digital systems.

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  The truth table for the
Boolean function:

is shown at the right.

 To make evaluation of the
Boolean function easier,
the truth table contains
extra (shaded) columns to
hold evaluations of
subparts of the function.

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  As with common
arithmetic, Boolean
operations have rules of
precedence.
 The NOT operator has
highest priority, followed
by AND and then OR.
 This is how we chose
the (shaded) function
subparts in our table.

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  Digital computers contain circuits that implement
Boolean functions.
 The simpler that we can make a Boolean
function, the smaller the circuit that will result.
 Simpler circuits are cheaper to build,
consume less power, and run faster than
complex circuits.
 With this in mind, we always want to reduce our
Boolean functions to their simplest form.
 There are a number of Boolean identities that
help us to do this.

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  Most Boolean identities have an AND (product) form as
well as an OR (sum) form. We give our identities using
both forms. Our first group is rather intuitive:

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  Our second group of Boolean identities should be
familiar to you from your study of algebra:

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  Our last group of Boolean identities are perhaps
the most useful.
 If you have studied set theory or formal logic, these
laws are also familiar to you.

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 Example
1: Prove the uniting theorem--
X•Y+X•Y'=X
Distributive X•Y+X•Y' = X•(Y+Y')
Complementarity = X•(1)
Identity =X

 Example
2: Prove the absorption theorem--
X+X•Y=X
Identity X+X•Y = (X•1)+(X•Y)
Distributive = X•(1+Y)
Null = X•(1)
Identity =X
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  Example 3: Prove the consensus theorem--
(XY)+(YZ)+(X'Z)= XY+X'Z
Complementarity XY+YZ+X'Z = XY+(X+X')YZ + X'Z
Distributive = XYZ+XY+X'YZ+X'Z
▪ Use absorption {AB+A=A} with A=XY and B=Z

= XY+X'YZ+X'Z
Rearrange terms = XY+X'ZY+X'Z
▪ Use absorption {AB+A=A} with A=X'Z and B=Y

XY+YZ+X'Z = XY+X'Z

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  We can use Boolean identities to simplify the
function:
as follows:

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  Sometimes it is more economical to build a
circuit using the complement of a function (and
complementing its result) than it is to implement
the function directly.
 DeMorgan’s law provides an easy way of finding
the complement of a Boolean function.
 Recall DeMorgan’s law states:

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  DeMorgan’s law can be extended to any number of
variables.
 Replace each variable by its complement and
change all ANDs to ORs and all ORs to ANDs.
 Thus, we find the the complement of:

is:

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  Through our exercises in simplifying Boolean
expressions, we see that there are numerous ways
of stating the same Boolean expression.
 These “synonymous” forms are logically
equivalent.
 Logically equivalent expressions have identical
truth tables.
 In order to eliminate as much confusion as possible,
designers express Boolean functions in
standardized or canonical form.

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  There are two canonical forms for Boolean
expressions: sum-of-products and product-of-sums.
 Recall the Boolean product is the AND
operation and the Boolean sum is the OR
operation.
 In the sum-of-products form, ANDed variables are
ORed together.
 For example:
 In the product-of-sums form, ORed variables are
ANDed together:
 For example:

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  Combinational logic circuits
give us many useful devices.
 One of the simplest is the
half adder, which finds the
sum of two bits.
 We can gain some insight as
to the construction of a half
adder by looking at its truth
table, shown at the right.

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  As we see, the sum can be
found using the XOR
operation and the carry
using the AND operation.

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  We can change our half
adder into to a full adder
by including gates for
processing the carry bit.
 The truth table for a full
adder is shown at the
right.

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  How can we change the
half adder shown below
to make it a full adder?

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  Here’s our completed full adder.

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