ATOMIC

STRUCTURE
GCSE CHEMISTRY (SINGLE SCIENCE)
Atoms, elements and compounds

Chemical Symbols
All substances are made from tiny particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest part of an
element that can exist.
Atoms of each element are represented by their own chemical symbol. A chemical symbol:
• consists of one or two letters
• always starts with a capital letter, with any other letter in lower case
For example the symbol O represents an atom of oxygen, and Na represents an atom of sodium.
You must write the chemical symbol of sodium as Na, not as NA, na or nA.
Atoms, elements
and compounds

There are over 100 different

elements. The names and
symbols of the elements are
shown in the periodic table.
Elements are arranged into
groups with similar properties.
Groups are numbered from 1 to
7, then 0.
In the periodic table, metals are
on the left of the stepped line, and
non-metals are on the right. Each box in the periodic table shows the chemical symbol for an element
Atoms, elements and compounds

Chemical formulae of elements

A chemical formula is used to represent an element or compound in balanced chemical
equations.
The formula for most elements is just its chemical symbol. For example:
helium, He carbon, C
lithium, Li neon, Ne
beryllium, Be sodium, Na
boron, B magnesium, Mg
Atoms, elements and compounds

Some non-metal elements exist as molecules that are made up of two atoms joined together. The
formulae of these elements are the element's symbol followed by a subscripted '2'. For example:
iodine, I2 oxygen, O2
bromine, Br2 nitrogen, N2
chlorine, Cl2 hydrogen, H2
fluorine, F2

A mnemonic can be used to remember these elements:

I Bring Clay For Our New House.
It's important to remember which elements exist as molecules, and which do not. Take care to use
the correct form in chemical equations involving these elements.
Atoms, elements and compounds

Chemical formulae of compounds

A compound is a substance that contains two or more elements that are chemically combined.
The elements in a compound are present in fixed proportions. For example, carbon dioxide always
has 12 g of carbon for every 32 g of oxygen.
A chemical formula can be used to represent a compound. The formula shows:
•the symbols for each element in the compound
•the number of atoms of each element in a unit of the compound
For example, magnesium oxide is made up of two elements, magnesium and oxygen. Its formula
is MgO. This shows that it has one atom of magnesium for every one atom of oxygen.
Atoms, elements and compounds

Here are some more examples of compounds and their formulae. The subscript number in a
formula shows if there is more than one atom of an element.
Name of compound Formula
Sodium chloride NaCl
Potassium bromide KBr
Magnesium iodide MgI2
Carbon dioxide CO2
Carbon monoxide CO
Sulfur trioxide SO3
Water H2O
Ammonia NH3
Methane CH4
Atoms, elements and compounds

Many compounds exist naturally. They can also be formed from their elements in chemical
reactions. In a chemical reaction, one or more new substances are formed. Most chemical
reactions involve energy changes.
It is not easy to split up a compound into its elements - the only way to do this is in chemical
reactions.
In compounds made up of non-metal elements only, the second word of the compound's
name starts with mon-, di-, or tri-, eg carbon dioxide. This shows the number of atoms of
this element for every one atom of the first element in the name. So for carbon dioxide
there are two oxygen atoms for every carbon atom.
Atoms, elements and compounds

Chemical formulae of ions

An ion is a charged particle formed when an atom, or a group of atoms, loses or gains electrons.
The number and sign of its electrical charges are shown in superscript text.
Names and formulae of some common ions:
Electrical
Name of ion Formula of ion
charge(s)
Sodium Na+ One positive
Magnesium Mg2+ Two positive
Chloride Cl- One negative
Oxide O2- Two negative
Atoms, elements and compounds

Simple formulae
The formula of an ionic compound can be predicted using the formulae of its ions. The numbers
of ions in a formula must give an equal number of positive and negative charges.
Name of
Formula Electrical charges
compound
Sodium chloride NaCl One positive, one negative
Sodium oxide Na2O Two positive, two negative
Magnesium oxide MgO Two positive, two negative
Magnesium MgCl2 Two positive, two negative
chloride
Atoms, elements and compounds

Word equations
A word equation represents a chemical reaction using the names of the substances involved.
Word equations do not show any chemical symbols or formulae.
Reactants and products
Reactants are substances that react together in a chemical reaction. In a chemical reaction, the
atoms or ions in reactants separate from one another. They join back together in a different way
to form products.
Word equations always take this form:
reactants → products
A + sign separates two or more reactants, or two or more products.
Atoms, elements and compounds

Example word equations

Potassium hydroxide reacts with sulfuric acid. Potassium sulfate and water are formed in the reaction. This
means that:
•the reactants are potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid
•the products are potassium sulfate and water
•the word equation is:
potassium hydroxide + sulfuric acid → potassium sulfate + water
Chemical equations contain an arrow and not an equals sign. The arrow means 'reacts to make'.
There can be different numbers of reactants and products. For example:
•sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride
•calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
Atoms, elements and compounds

A balanced chemical equation represents a chemical reaction using the formulae of the
reactants and products. It shows the number of units of each substance involved.
State symbols
Balanced chemical equations sometimes include state symbols in brackets after each formula.
They show the physical state of that substance.
State symbol Meaning
(s) Solid
(l) Liquid
(g) Gas
(aq) Aqueous solution
Atoms, elements and compounds

An aqueous solution forms when a substance dissolves in water.

State symbols are useful because they show what a substance is like. For example:
• H2O(l) is liquid water but H2O(g) is steam and H2O(s) is ice
• HCl(g) is hydrogen chloride gas but HCl(aq) is hydrochloric acid
Balancing an equation
The law of conservation of mass states that no atoms are lost or made during a chemical
reaction, so the total mass of the products is equal to the total mass of the reactants.
This means that chemical reactions can be represented by symbol equations. A balanced symbol
equation has the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the arrow.
Atoms, elements Step Result

and compounds
Check to see if there are an
equal number of atoms of each N + H → NH
2 2 3
element on both sides. There
aren't.
There are two nitrogen atoms
on the left but only one on the
N2 + H2 → 2NH3
right, so put a big 2 on the left
of the NH3.

To balance an equation, add numbers to the left of one or Check again. There are two
hydrogen atoms on the left but
N + 3H2 → 2NH3
more formulae. Here is one way to work out how to do this (2 × 3) = 6 on the right, so put a 2
big 3 in front of the H2.
for the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen.
Check again to see if there are
(Two nitrogen atoms and six
equal numbers of each element
Balanced chemical equations only show formulae, not on both sides. There are.
hydrogen atoms)

names. A balancing number, written in normal script, Add the state symbols if asked N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
to do so.
multiplies all the atoms in the substance next to it.
Atoms, elements and compounds

• CO2 + H2O → C6H12O6 + O2 • Calcium hydroxide is treated with hydrochloric

acid to produce water and calcium chloride. Write
• SiCl4 + H2O → H4SiO4 + HCl
a balanced chemical reaction that describes this
• Al + HCl → AlCl3 + H2 process.
• Na2CO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2 • What is the coefficient for oxygen gas when the
following equation is balanced?
• C7H6O2 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
C5H12 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
• Fe2(SO4)3 + KOH → K2SO4 + Fe(OH)3
• Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 → P4O10 + CaSiO3
• KClO3 → KClO4 + KCl
• Al2(SO4)3 + Ca(OH)2 → Al(OH)3 + CaSO4
• H2SO4 + HI → H2S + I2 + H2O
Mixtures
Mixtures

Pure substances and mixtures

The meaning of pure
The word 'pure' is used in chemistry in a different way from its everyday meaning. For example,
shops sell cartons labelled as ‘pure' orange juice. The label means that the contents are just
orange juice, with no other substances added. However, the juice is not pure in the chemical
sense, because it contains different substances mixed together. In chemistry:
• a pure substance consists only of one element or one compound
• a mixture consists of two or more different substances, not chemically joined together
The substances in a mixture can be elements, or compounds, or both. Being part of a mixture
does not change the chemical properties of the substances that are in it.
Mixtures

Separating mixtures
Mixtures can be separated by physical processes. These processes do not involve chemical
reactions, and no new substances are made.
Example;
• Different coloured balls in a bag
• Water and sand in a glass
• Sand and iron filings
The components of a mixture can be separated without chemical reactions
Mixtures

Filtration
Filtration is used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid.
It is useful for separating sand from a mixture of sand
and water, or excess reactant from a reaction mixture.
Filtration works because the filter paper has tiny holes or
pores in it. These are large enough to let
small molecules and dissolved ions through, but not the
much larger particles of undissolved solid.
Step 1: Separating insoluble solids
One beaker contains a mixture of solid and liquid, the other
contains a funnel with filter paper
Mixtures

Step 2: Step 3:
The solid and liquid mixture is poured into the The liquid drips through the filter paper but the
filter funnel. solid particles are caught in the filter paper.
Mixtures

Crystallization
Crystallization is used to produce solid crystals from a solution. When the solution is warmed, some
of solvent evaporates leaving crystals behind. For example, crystallization is used to obtain copper
sulfate crystals from copper sulfate solution.
To obtain large, regularly shaped crystals from crystallization:
• put the solution in an evaporating basin
• warm the solution by placing the evaporating basin over a boiling water bath
• stop heating when crystals begin to form around the edge of the basin
After the remaining solution has cooled down, pour the excess liquid away (or filter it). Dry the
crystals using a warm oven or by patting them with filter paper.
Mixtures

1. A solution is placed in an 2. The volume of the solution has 3. All the water has
evaporating basin and heated with decreased because some of the evaporated, leaving solid
a Bunsen burner. water has evaporated. Solid crystals behind.
particles begin to form in the
basin.
Mixtures

Distillation
Simple distillation
Simple distillation is used to separate a solvent from
a solution. It is useful for producing pure water from
seawater.
Simple distillation works because the dissolved solute has
a much higher boiling point than the solvent. When the
solution is heated, solvent vapor leaves the solution. It
moves away and is cooled and condensed. The remaining
1. Salty water is heated
solution becomes more concentrated as the amount of
solvent in it decreases.
 Mixture

2. The water vapor cools in the condenser and drips into 3. The water has condensed and is now in the
a beaker beaker, the salt stays behind
Mixtures

Fractional distillation
Fractional distillation is used to separate different liquids from a
mixture of liquids. It is useful for separating ethanol from a mixture of
ethanol and water, and for separating different fractions from
crude oil.
Fractional distillation works because the different liquids have different
boiling points. When the mixture is heated:
• vapors rise through a column which is hot at the bottom, and cooler
at the top
• vapors condense when they reach a part of the column that is
below the temperature of their boiling point
• each liquid is led away from the column 1. Water and ethanol solution is heated
Mixture

There are two ways of obtaining different

liquids from the column:
• by collecting different liquids from different
parts of the column - the substance with the
lowest boiling point is collected at the top of
the column
• by continuing to heat the mixture to increase
the temperatures in the column - the
substance with the lowest boiling point is
collected first

2. The ethanol evaporates first, cools, then condenses

Mixture
3. The water left evaporates, cools, then
condenses
Mixture

Paper chromatography
Paper chromatography is used to separate mixtures of soluble substances. These are often
colored substances such as food colorings, inks, dyes or plant pigments.
In analytical chemistry, it is a technique for separating dissolved chemical substances by taking
advantage of their different rates of migration across sheets of paper. It is an inexpensive but
powerful analytical tool that requires very small quantities of material.
• The method consists of applying the test solution or sample as a spot near one corner of a sheet
of filter paper.
• The paper is initially impregnated with some suitable solvent to create a stationary liquid phase.
• An edge of the paper close to the test spot is then immersed in another solvent in which the
components of the mixture are soluble in varying degrees.
Mixture

• The solvent penetrates the paper by capillary action and, in passing over the sample spot,
carries along with it the various components of the sample.
• The components move with the flowing solvent at velocities that are dependent on their solubility
in the stationary and flowing solvents.
• Separation of the components is brought about if there are differences in their relative solubility
in the two solvents.
• Before the flowing solvent reaches the farther edge of the paper, both solvents are evaporated,
and the location of the separated components is identified, usually by application of reagents
that form colored compounds with the separated substances.
• The separated components appear as individual spots on the path of the solvent. If the solvent
flowing in one direction is not able to separate all the components satisfactorily, the paper may
be turned 90° and the process repeated using another solvent.
Mixture

Paper chromatography has become standard practice for the

separation of complex mixtures of amino acids, peptides,
carbohydrates, steroids, purines, and a long list of simple organic
compounds. Inorganic ions can also readily be separated on paper.
A paper chromatogram can also be used to identify substances by
comparing them with known substances. Two substances are likely to
be the same if:
• they produce the same number of spots, and these match in color
• the spots travel the same distance up the paper
Atomic Structure
Atomic structure

Early ideas about atoms

Ideas about atoms have changed over time. Scientists developed
new atomic models as they gathered new experimental evidence.
John Dalton published his ideas about atoms in 1803. He thought
that all matter was made of tiny particles called atoms, which he
imagined as tiny spheres that could not be divided.
Nearly 100 years later, J J Thomson carried out experiments and
discovered the electron. This led him to suggest the plum
pudding model of the atom. In this model, the atom is a ball of
positive charge with negative electrons embedded in it - like
currants in a Christmas pudding.
Atomic Structure

In 1909 Ernest Rutherford designed an experiment

to test the plum pudding model. In the experiment,
positively charged alpha particles were fired at thin
gold foil. Most alpha particles went straight through
the foil. But a few were scattered in different
directions.
This evidence led Rutherford to suggest a new
model for the atom, called the nuclear model. In the
nuclear model:
• the mass of an atom is concentrated at its center, The alpha particle scattering experiment
the nucleus
• the nucleus is positively charged
Atomic Structure

Developing models of atoms

Niels Bohr adapted Ernest Rutherford's nuclear model. Bohr did calculations that led him to
suggest that electrons orbit the nucleus in shells. The shells are at certain distances from the
nucleus. The calculations agreed with observations from experiments.
Further experiments led to the idea that the nucleus contained small
particles, called protons. Each proton has a small amount of positive
charge.
In 1932 James Chadwick found evidence for the existence of particles
in the nucleus with mass but no charge. These particles are
called neutrons. This led to another development of the atomic model,
which is still used today.
The nuclear model of the atom,
showing electrons in shells
Atomic Structure
Atomic Structure

Structure of the atom

Nucleus and shells
An atom has a central nucleus. This is surrounded by electrons arranged in shells.
The nucleus is tiny compared to the atom as a whole:
• the radius of an atom is about 0.1 nm (1 × 10-10 m)
• the radius of a nucleus (1 × 10-14 m) is less than (frac{1}{10,000}) of the radius of an atom
For comparison, the radius of a typical bacterium is 1 × 10-6 m and the radius of a human hair is
about 1 × 10-4 m.
Atomic Structure

Subatomic particles
The nuclei of all atoms contain subatomic particles called
protons. The nuclei of most atoms also contain neutrons.
The masses of subatomic particles are very tiny. Instead of
writing their actual masses in kilograms, we often use
their relative masses. The relative mass of a proton is 1, and
a particle with a relative mass smaller than 1 has less mass.
Subatomic Relative mass Relative charge
particle
Proton 1 +1 The structure of a carbon atom, not drawn to
scale
Neutron 1 0
Electron Very small -1
Atomic Structure

The mass of an electron is very small compared to a • all atoms of a given element have the same
proton or a neutron. Since the nucleus contains number of protons
protons and neutrons, most of the mass of an atom
• atoms of different elements have different
is concentrated in its nucleus.
numbers of protons
Protons and electrons have electrical charges that
An atom contains equal numbers of protons
are equal and opposite.
and electrons. Since protons and electrons have
Atomic number and mass number equal and opposite charges, this means that atoms
are have no overall electrical charge.
Atomic number
For example, the atomic number of sodium is 11.
The number of protons in an atom of an element is
Every sodium atom has 11 protons and 11 electrons.
its atomic number. Remember that:
It has 11 positive charges and 11 negative charges.
Atomic Structure

Mass number
The mass number of an atom is its total number of protons and neutrons.
Atoms of different elements usually have different mass numbers, but they can be the same. For
example, the mass number of argon atoms and calcium atoms can both be 40.
• The symbol for an atom can be written to show its mass number at the top, and its atomic
number at the bottom.
• To calculate the numbers of subatomic particles in an atom, use its atomic number and mass
number:
• number of protons = atomic number
• number of electrons = atomic number
• number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number
Atomic Structure

Isotopes
Atoms of the same element must have the same number of protons, but they can have different numbers
of neutrons. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Isotopes of
an element have:
• the same atomic number
• different mass numbers
Isotope Symbol Protons Electrons Neutrons
Three isotopes of hydrogen Hydrogen-1 1 H1 1 1 1-1=0
All hydrogen atoms contain one proton (and one Hydrogen-2 2 H1 1 1 2-1=1
electron), but they can contain different numbers of Hydrogen-3 H1 1 1 3-1=2
3
neutrons. Hydrogen-1 is the most abundant (most
common) isotope of hydrogen.
Atomic Structure

An isotope is named after the element and the mass number of its atoms. For example, carbon-12 is an
isotope of carbon with a mass number of 12.
All three isotopes of hydrogen have identical chemical properties. This is because the number of electrons
determines chemical properties, and all three isotopes have one electron in their atoms.
Relative atomic mass
The relative atomic mass of an element is a weighted average of the masses of the atoms of the
isotopes. It takes account of the abundance of each of the isotopes of the element.
Relative atomic masses can be found in the periodic table. They have the symbol Ar.
Take care not to confuse mass numbers and relative atomic masses:
• mass numbers are always whole numbers (protons or neutrons cannot be split into parts)
• relative atomic masses are often rounded to the nearest whole number, but are actually not whole numbers
For example, the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 rather than a whole number. This is because chlorine
contains two different isotopes, chlorine-35 and chlorine-37.
Atomic Structure

Calculating relative atomic mass

The carbon-12 atom, 12C6 is the standard atom against which the masses of other atoms are compared.
The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of its atoms, compared to 1/12th the mass of a
carbon-12 atom. The relative atomic mass, Ar, of an element is calculated from:

• the mass numbers of its isotopes

• the abundance of these isotopes

Chlorine
Chlorine naturally exists as two isotopes, 35Cl17 (chlorine-35) and 37Cl17 (chlorine-37). The abundance of
chlorine-35 is 75% and the abundance of chlorine-37 is 25%. In other words, in every 100 chlorine atoms, 75
atoms have a mass number of 35, and 25 atoms have a mass number of 37.
Notice that the answer is closer to 35 than it is to 37. This is because the chlorine-35 isotope is much more
abundant than the chlorine-37 isotope.
 Atomic Structure

Question
The table shows the mass numbers and abundances of naturally occurring copper isotopes.

Mass number Abundance

63 69%
65 31%

Calculate the relative atomic mass of copper. Give your answer to 1 decimal place.
Periodic table
Periodic Table

Dmitri Mendeleev
Mendeleev's periodic table
Dmitri Mendeleev was a Russian chemist. He wrote
Early attempts to classify elements
chemistry books and was looking for ways to
Before discovering protons, neutrons and electrons, organize the known elements. He published his first
scientists tried to classify the elements by arranging periodic table of the elements in 1869. In it, he
them in order of their atomic weights. The atomic arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic
weight of an element is equivalent to what we now weights. He also took into account the properties of
call its relative atomic mass. the elements and their compounds. This meant that
his table:
Early periodic tables were incomplete, since many
• had gaps in it
elements were unknown. Also, some elements were • showed elements with similar chemical properties
placed in groups with elements that were not similar lined up in groups
to them.
However, from their atomic weights, some pairs of
elements next to each other were in the wrong order.
Periodic Table

Predictions using gaps

Mendeleev left gaps in his table for elements not known at
the time. By looking at the properties of the elements next to
a gap, he could also predict the properties of these
undiscovered elements. For example, Mendeleev predicted
the existence of 'eka-silicon', which would fit into a gap below
silicon. Another scientist later discovered the missing
element, germanium. Its properties were found to be similar
to the predicted ones and confirmed Mendeleev's periodic
table.
Periodic Table
Pair reversals
Iodine has a lower atomic weight than tellurium. So iodine should be placed before tellurium in Mendeleev's
periodic table. However, iodine has similar chemical properties to chlorine and bromine. To make iodine
lineup with chlorine and bromine in his table, Mendeleev swapped the positions of iodine and tellurium.
Demerits
• Mendeleev arranged elements in the ascending order of their atomic masses. There was no
fixed position for hydrogen in his periodic table, as it resembles alkali metals as well as
halogens.
• Elements of higher atomic mass were placed before elements of lower atomic mass. Cobalt
with atomic mass 58.93 was placed before nickel with atomic mass 58.71.
• Elements having different properties were placed in the same subgroup like manganese (Mn)
was placed with halogens which had totally different properties
• There was no regular trend in increasing of atomic mass when moved along the elements.
• More elements were yet to be known.
Periodic Table

The modern periodic table

In the modern periodic table:
• elements are arranged in rows, called
periods, in order of increasing atomic
number
• elements with similar properties are placed
in vertical columns, called groups
The table is called the periodic table because
elements with similar properties occur at
regular intervals.

The modern periodic table with some elements left out for simplicity
Periodic Table

Resolving pair reversals Electronic structure

Mendeleev did not know about isotopes, but their An electronic structure is the way in
existence explains pair reversals. The positions of which electrons are arranged in an atom.
iodine and tellurium were reversed in Mendeleev's Electrons in shells
table because:
Electrons in atoms occupy energy levels, also called
• iodine has one naturally occurring isotope, iodine- electron shells, outside the nucleus. Different shells
127 can hold different maximum numbers of electrons.
• the most abundant tellurium isotopes are The electrons in an atom occupy the lowest
tellurium-128 and tellurium-130 available energy level first. This is the shell nearest
The high relative abundance of these tellurium to the nucleus. When this shell is full the electrons
isotopes gives tellurium the greater relative atomic begin to occupy the next energy level.
mass. The atomic number of tellurium is 52 and the
atomic number of iodine is 53, so these elements
are in the correct order in the modern periodic table.
Periodic Table

Below is a table showing the maximum number of electrons an element can have for each of its energy level
shells. The information shown is for elements with atomic numbers 1 to 20:
Shell Maximum
First 2
Second 8
Third 8

Predicting an electronic structure

The electronic structure of an atom can be predicted from its atomic number. For example, the atomic
number of sodium is 11. Sodium atoms have 11 protons and so 11 electrons:
• two electrons occupy the first shell
• eight electrons occupy the second shell
• one electron occupies the third shell
Periodic Table

This electronic structure can be written as 2,8,1 (each comma, or dot, separates one shell from the next). This
electronic structure can also be shown as a diagram. In these diagrams:
• each shell is shown as a circle
• each electron is shown as a dot or a cross
Periodic Table

Electronic structures and the periodic table

The electronic structure of an element is linked to its position on the periodic table.
The electronic structure of sodium (2,8,1) shows that sodium, Na:
Electronic structure feature Link to the periodic table
• is in period 3
Number of shells Period number
• is in group 1 Number of electrons in
Group number
• has an atomic number of (2 + 8 + 1) = 11 outermost shell
Numbers added together Atomic number
 Periodic Table
Properties of Metals and Non-metals
Differences in chemical properties
Most elements are metals. In their chemical reactions, metal atoms
lose electrons to form positive ions. For example:
• when magnesium burns in air, each atom loses two electrons to
form a Mg2+ ion
• when sodium reacts with chlorine, each sodium atom loses one
electron to form a Na+ ion
• Elements that do not form positive ions in their chemical reaction
are non-metals. A sodium atom, Na, forms a Na+ ion by losing an
electron.
The chemical properties of the compounds of metal and non-metal
elements are also different:
• most metal oxides are basic
• most non-metal oxides are acidic
Periodic Table

Differences in physical properties Properties of a typical metal (when Properties of a typical non-metal
solid) (when solid)
Metal and non-metal elements have Good conductor of electricity Poor conductor of electricity
different physical properties: Good conductor of heat Poor conductor of heat
Shiny Dull
• most metals have high melting and
High density Low density
boiling points
Malleable Brittle
• most nonmetals have low melting Ductile Brittle
and boiling points
• The table shows some other
differences in physical properties
of metals and non-metals, when
solid.
Periodic Table
Metals and Non-Metals in the Periodic Table
In the periodic table:
• metal elements are on the left of a stepped line starting
at B-Al-Si
• non-metal elements are on the right of the stepped line
Atomic structure and the periodic table
Elements in group 1 and group 2 are metals. Atoms of
group 1 elements have one electron in their outer shell, and
atoms of group 2 elements have two electrons in their outer
shell.
Elements in groups 6, 7 and 0 are non-metals. Atoms of
group 7 elements have seven electrons in their outer shell,
and atoms of group 0 elements, except helium, have eight
electrons in their outer shell.
The reactions of elements are related to the number of electrons in their outer shells:
• Atoms of metal elements give away electrons in their reactions to form positive ions. The ions formed have a full outer
electron shell, so are very stable.
• Atoms of non-metal elements gain electrons in some of their reactions to form negative ions. The ions formed have a full
outer electron shell, so are very stable.
Groups in Periodic table
Groups in Periodic Table

Group 0 - physical properties

Group 0 contains non-metal elements placed in the vertical column on the far
right of the periodic table. The elements in group 0 are called the noble gases.
They exist as single atoms.

The noble gases show trends in their physical properties.

Boiling points

The noble gases all have low boiling points:

• helium, at the top of group 0, has the lowest boiling point of any element

The attractive forces between the atoms become stronger, this is because,
going down group 0:
• the atoms become larger
• the intermolecular forces between the atoms become stronger
Radon is situated below xenon in group 0. Predict the likely boiling
• more energy is needed to overcome these forces point of radon.
Groups in Periodic Table
Group 0 - chemical properties
Compared to other elements, the noble gases are inert - they
are extremely unreactive and do not take part in chemical
reactions.
Explaining the inertness of noble gases
The table shows the electronic structures of some noble gases. Element Electronic structure
All the noble gases have complete outer shells: Helium 2
Neon 2.8
• helium has only two electrons
Argon 2.8.8
• the other elements have eight electrons in the outer shell

When elements react, their atoms complete their outer shells by losing, gaining, or sharing electrons. Atoms of group
0 elements already have stable arrangements of electrons. This means that they have no tendency to lose, gain, or
share electrons. This is why the noble gases are unreactive. It also explains why atoms of group 0 elements do not
share electrons to form molecules.
Groups in Periodic Table

Group 1 - physical properties The table shows the melting points of five alkali metals.
Use this information to describe how melting point changes in group 1.
Group 1 contains elements placed in
Element Melting point (°C)
a vertical column on the far left of the
periodic table. The elements in group Lithium, Li 180
1 are called the alkali metals. Sodium, Na 98

The alkali metals share similar Potassium, K 63

physical properties. For example, Rubidium, Rb 39
they: Cesium, Cs 28
• are soft (they can be cut with a Francium, Fr, is below cesium in the periodic table.
knife) Use the information in the table above to predict the melting point of
francium. Explain your answer.
• have relatively low melting points

• have low densities

Groups in Periodic Table

Group 1 – chemical reactions with water

Atoms of group 1 elements all have one electron in their outer shell. This means that the alkali metals all have similar chemical
properties.

When a group 1 element takes part in a reaction, its atoms each lose one electron. This forms positively charged ions. The
ions have a stable arrangement of electrons, with a complete outer shell.

Reactions with water

The alkali metals react with water to produce a metal hydroxide and hydrogen. For example, sodium reacts with water:

sodium + water → sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Sodium hydroxide is an alkali. It is a base that dissolves in water to form an alkaline solution. This solution:
• Has a pH greater than 7

• Turn universal indicator solution blue or purple

Groups in Periodic Table

Question

Write the word equation and balanced symbol equation for the reaction of potassium with water.

The table shows observations when lithium, sodium and potassium are added to water. Notice that the reactivity of these
metals increases going down the group. This pattern is seen with all reactions of group 1 elements. For example, the reaction
of cesium with chlorine is more vigorous than the reaction of potassium with chlorine.
Element Observation when added to water
Lithium, Li Fizzes steadily; slowly becomes smaller until it disappears
Fizzes rapidly; melts to form a ball; quickly becomes smaller
Sodium, Na
until it disappears
Burns violently with sparks and a lilac flame; quickly melts to
Potassium, K
form a ball; disappears rapidly, often with a small explosion

Rubidium is placed below potassium in group 1. Predict what is seen when rubidium is added to water.
Groups in Periodic Table

Group 1 - chemical reactions with oxygen and chlorine

Reactions with oxygen

The group 1 elements react with oxygen from the air to make metal oxides.

At room temperature, oxygen reacts with the surface of the metal. This forms a white oxide, which covers the surface. The
metal below the surface does not react.

The alkali metals burn vigorously when heated and placed in a gas jar of oxygen. The oxide forms as white smoke.

For example:

sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide

4Na(s) + O2(g)→ 2Na2O(S)

The reactivity of the group 1 elements increases down the group, so their reactions with oxygen get more vigorous.
Groups in Periodic Table

Question

Predict which becomes white more quickly on exposure to air - a piece of rubidium, or a piece of lithium. Explain your answer.

Reactions with chlorine

The group 1 elements react vigorously with chlorine. The products of the reactions are chlorides. At room temperature the
chlorides are white solids. They dissolve in water to form colorless solutions. For example:

sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

The reactions with chlorine get more vigorous going down the group.

Question

Write a balanced equation for the reaction of potassium with chlorine.

Groups in Periodic Table

Explaining the trend in reactivity

When a group 1 element takes part in a reaction, each of its atoms loses its
outer electron to form a positively charged ion. The more easily the ions
form, the more reactive the metal.

Going down group 1:

• the atoms become larger

• the outer electron becomes further from the nucleus

• the force of attraction between the nucleus and the outer electron
decreases
• the outer electron is lost more easily
Groups in Periodic Table

Group 7 - physical properties

Group 7 contains non-metal elements placed in a vertical column on

the right of the periodic table. The elements in group 7 are called the
halogens.

The halogens show trends in their physical and chemical properties.

Physical properties

The halogens exist as simple molecules. Each molecule is made up of

a pair of halogen atoms joined by a single covalent bond. In all groups
of the periodic table, the further down the group an element is, the Group 7 is on the right-hand side of the periodic table, next to
higher its relative molecular mass. group 0
Groups in Periodic Table

The table shows the color and physical states of chlorine, bromine and iodine at room temperature.
Element Color State
Chlorine, Cl2 Pale green Gas
Bromine, Br2 Brown Liquid
Iodine, I2 Purple-black Solid
In group 7, the further down the group an element is, the higher its melting
point and boiling point. This is because, going down group 7:
• The molecules become larger
• The intermolecular forces become stronger
• More energy is needed to overcome these forces
Question
The graph shows the melting and boiling points of the first four group 7
elements. Astatine is placed below iodine in group 7. Predict the melting
and boiling points of astatine, and its state at room temperature.
Groups in Periodic Table

The table shows the color and physical states of chlorine, bromine and iodine at room temperature.

Group 7 - chemical properties

Atoms of group 7 elements all have seven electrons in their outer shell. This means that the halogens all have similar
chemical reactions.

When a group 7 element takes part in a reaction, its atoms each gain one electron. These atoms form negatively charged
ions. The ions have a stable arrangement of electrons, with a complete outer shell.

Reactions with metals

The halogens react with metals to produce salts. The salts are made up of ions, which are held together by ionic bonds. For
example, chlorine reacts with sodium:

sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

Sodium and chlorine react vigorously when heated, giving an orange flame and clouds of white sodium chloride.

In group 7, the reactivity of the elements decreases down the group. The table describes what happens when halogens react
with iron wool.
Groups in Periodic Table

Halogen Reaction
Fluorine Cold iron wool burns to produce white iron(III) fluoride
Chlorine Hot iron wool burns vigorously to produce orange-brown iron(III) chloride
Bromine Hot iron wool burns quickly to produce red-brown iron(III) bromide
Iodine Hot iron wool reacts slowly in iodine vapor to produce grey iron(II) iodide

Question
Write a balanced equation for the reaction of iron with chlorine to produce iron (III) chloride, FeCl 3. Include state symbols.

Reactions with non-metals

The halogens react with non-metals such as hydrogen. When a halogen reacts with hydrogen, the product is a compound
called a hydrogen halide. For example, chlorine reacts with hydrogen:
hydrogen + chlorine → hydrogen chloride
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
Groups in Periodic Table

The hydrogen halides are gases at room temperature. They dissolve in water to produce acidic solutions. Hydrogen chloride
dissolves in water to produce hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq).

The table describes what happens when halogens react with hydrogen. It shows that the reactivity of the elements decreases
down the group.

Halogen Reaction
Fluorine Explodes at room temperature and in the dark, forming hydrogen fluoride
Chlorine Explodes with a flame or in sunlight, forming hydrogen chloride
Bromine Vigorous reaction when warmed with hydrogen, forming hydrogen bromide
Iodine Very slow reaction when heated strongly, forming some hydrogen iodide

Question
Astatine is below iodine in group 7. Use the information to predict the reaction of astatine with hydrogen
Groups in Periodic Table

Group 7 - displacement reactions

A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from solutions of its salts. For example, chlorine is more reactive
than iodine. A solution of chlorine can displace iodine from potassium iodide solution:

chlorine + potassium iodide → potassium chloride + iodine

Cl2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)

The reaction mixture turns darker as iodine solution forms.

The slideshow shows what happens when solutions of chlorine, bromine and iodine are added to various potassium halide salts.

Question

Write a balanced equation for the displacement reaction of bromine solution with sodium iodide solution.

Question

Can Iodine displace chlorine from sodium chloride solution? Explain your answer.
Groups in Periodic Table

Explaining the trend in reactivity

When a group 7 element takes part in a reaction, its atoms each gain one electron. These atoms form negatively charged
ions. The ions have a stable arrangement of electrons, with a complete outer shell.

Going down group 7:

• the atoms become larger

• the outer shell becomes further from the nucleus

• the force of attraction between the nucleus and the outer shell decreases

• an outer electron is gained less easily

• the halogen becomes less reactive

Groups in Periodic Table
Groups in Periodic Table
Groups in Periodic Table
Transition Metals
Transition Metals

Physical properties of transition elements

Most metals are transition metals. They include iron, copper and chromium. The transition elements are in the central part of
the periodic table.
The transition elements share some physical
properties with all metals:
• they conduct electricity in the solid and liquid
states
• they are shiny when freshly cut
Some properties of transition elements are different
from those of the metals in group 1. Compared to
other metals, most transition metals have:
• higher melting points
• higher densities
• greater strength
• greater hardness
Remember that these are typical properties – some
transition metals may not show one or more of them.
For example, mercury melts at just -39°C, so it is a The transition elements are placed between groups 2 and 3 in the
liquid at room temperature. periodic table Physical properties
Transition metals

Typical transition elements

The elements below have properties that are typical of transition elements:

Chromium(Cr), manganese(Mn), iron(Fe), cobalt(Co), nickel(Ni), copper(Cu)

The table shows the melting point and density of some transition elements, compared to three metals in the periodic table that
are not transition elements.
Metal Position Melting point Density
Sodium Group 1 98°C 0.97 g/cm3
Magnesium Group 2 650°C 1.74 g/cm3
Aluminium Group 3 660°C 2.70 g/cm3
Chromium Transition elements 1890°C 7.19 g/cm3
Manganese Transition elements 1240°C 7.20 g/cm3
Iron Transition elements 1538°C 7.87 g/cm3
Cobalt Transition elements 1492°C 8.90 g/cm3
Nickel Transition elements 1453°C 8.90 g/cm3
Copper Transition elements 1083°C 8.92 g/cm3
Transition metals
Worked example

Compare the properties of sodium and chromium. How does the data show that chromium is a typical transition element, and
sodium is a typical group 1 metal?

Chromium has a much higher melting point than sodium. The density of chromium is also greater than sodium. Most
transition elements have high melting points and densities, so chromium is a typical transition element. The group 1 elements
have low melting points and densities, so sodium is a typical group 1 element.

Question

Predict the differences in the hardness and strength of nickel and potassium. Give a reason for your prediction.