Change of State 3

3 Change of State

3.1 Change of state

3.2 Latent heat

3.3 Specific latent heat

Heat and Gases 1

 Change of State 3
3.1 Change of state

• Three common states of matter:

solid liquid Vaporizatio gas
Melting / n
Fusion (boiling /
evaporation
)

Freezing Condensati
on

Heat and Gases 2

 Change of State 3

Intermolecular attraction (bond)

• Molecules attract each other (or form bonds)

slips past each
other

strong
weaker
bond fixed
bond
solid positio
liquid
n

very weak
bond
moves
gas freely

Heat and Gases 3

 Change of State 3

• Breaking bonds requires extra energy

• Analogy: magnet

energy energy

Heat and Gases 4

 Change of State 3
A Evaporation and condensation

Evaporation

evaporati
on
liquid ga
s
• Evaporation (one kind of vaporization) occurs at any
temperature below boiling point.
• Takes place at the surface of the liquid.

Heat and Gases 5

 Change of State 3

• Molecules have different KE

• Higher KE molecules near

liquid surface
⇒ break free of the bond

⇒ escape from the liquid

⇒ vapour (gas)

Heat and Gases 6

 Change of State 3

Cooling effect of evaporation

• Molecules with higher KE escaped

KE A B C D

avg:

KE A B C

avg:

A D C
⇒ ↓average KE ⇒ ↓temperature
B

Heat and Gases 7

 Change of State 3

• e.g. sweating • e.g. panting

• sweat evaporates • moisture from its

tongue evaporates
⇒ ↓temperature
⇒ ↓temperature
Microscopic interpretation
of
evaporation
Heat and Gases 8
 Change of State 3

Condensation

condensati
on
evaporati
on
liquid gas

• Condensation occurs at any temperature below

boiling point

Heat and Gases 9

 Change of State 3

steam
energy

• Breaking bond needs energy (evaporation)

⇒ forming bond releases energy (condensation)

• Condensation
⇒ ↑temperature of surface where vapour
condenses
Heat and Gases 10
 Change of State 3

• e.g. cook food with • e.g. sauna

steam • water vapour condenses
• water vapour condenses on the wall
on the food surface ⇒ ↑wall temperature
⇒ ↑food temperature

Heat and Gases 11

 Change of State 3

Net evaporation & net condensation

• Evaporation & condensation condensatio

n
occur simultaneously
evaporatio
n

Heat and Gases 12

 Change of State 3

Vapour density

• ↑ no. of vapour molecules per

cm3

⇒ more likely to hit the liquid

surface return

⇒ ↑rate of return
escape
• At a certain vapour density (ρ0),
rate of escape = rate of
return

Heat and Gases 13

 Change of State 3

• If vapour density < ρ0 • If vapour density > ρ0

⇒ Rateescape > Ratereturn ⇒ Ratereturn > Rateescape

⇒ Net evaporation ⇒ Net condensation

return return

escape escape

Heat and Gases 14

 Change of State 3

Factors enhancing the rate of evaporation

• Rate of evaporation = Rate of escape − Rate of

return
factors explanation
1. high temperature Average molecular speed↑⇒ rate of escape↑

Liquid molecules near the surface↑⇒ rate of

2. large surface area
escape↑

3. low humidity Vapour density↓⇒ rate of return↓

Part of the vapour is carried away ⇒ rate of

4. windy (open area)
return↓

Heat and Gases 15

 Change of State 3
B Evaporation & boiling

boiling
evaporati
liquid on gas

• Boiling (another kind of vaporization) occurs at

boiling point only
• Takes place not just at the surface but throughout the
liquid. 16

Heat and Gases

 Change of State 3

• ↑temperature ⇒ molecules move more violently

• At boiling point, molecules break free inside the

liquid

⇒ forms vapour bubbles

Heat and Gases 17

 Change of State 3

• Internal energy gain → break free of attraction

⇒ no change in temperature
• ↑power ⇒ ↑forming rate of vapour bubbles

100 °C 100 °C

heat heat

Heat and Gases 18

 Change of State 3

• Vaporization = evaporation OR boiling

evaporation boiling

bubble
containing
water
vapour

below at
boiling boiling
point point

heat

Heat and Gases 19

 Change of State 3

evaporation occurs boiling occurs

at liquid surface only throughout the liquid

at any temperatures below

at boiling point
boiling point

with NO vapour bubbles with vapour bubbles formed

vaporizing gently vaporizing vigorously

Heat and Gases 20

 Change of State 3
C Melting and freezing

Melting (fusion)

melting

solid liquid

• Melting occurs at melting point only

Heat and Gases 21

 Change of State 3

• ↑temperature ⇒ molecules move more violently

• At melting point, bonds can no longer hold

molecules together

⇒ bonds start to break

molecules molecules moving
vibrating around each other
about fixed
positions

Heat and Gases 22

 Change of State 3

• Internal energy gain → break free of attraction

⇒ no change in temperature

energ
y
0 °C 0 °C
ice water

Heat and Gases 23

 Change of State 3

Freezing

freezing
melting
solid liquid

• Freezing occurs at freezing point (same

temperature as melting point) only

Heat and Gases 24

 Change of State 3

• ↓temperature ⇒ molecules move slower

• At freezing point, attraction between molecules holds

them together and forms a solid.

heat

0 °C

Heat and Gases 25

 Change of State 3

• Energy releases ∵ forming bonds → internal energy

loss
⇒ no change in temperature

energy

0 °C 0 °C
water ice

Heat and Gases 26

 Change of State 3
Question 2:
Complete the following graph to show how temperature T varies
with time t after ice cubes are added to a cup of water. Your graph
should describe the situation after the ice cubes are melted
completely.

Heat and Gases

 Change of State 3
Question 2:

Heat and Gases

 Change of State 3
D Summing up

1. Change of state is about breaking and forming

bonds between molecules.

forming forming
breaking breaking

Heat and Gases 29

 Change of State 3

2. Melting and vaporization (breaking bonds) absorb

energy.

3. Condensation and freezing (forming bonds)

release energy.

release release
absorb absorb

Heat and Gases 30

 Change of State 3

3. Melting, freezing and boiling take places at a

particular temperature. To maintain the process,
energy must be continuously supplied or removed.

melting boiling
point point

temperature

freezing
point

Heat and Gases 31

 Change of State 3
3.2 Latent heat

A Energy and change of state

-4 °C 0 °C 100 °C
0 °C 100 °C
Heat and Gases
 Change of State 3
3.2 Latent heat

A Energy and change of state

Molecular
K.E.
increases

Molecular P.E.
increases
Heat and Gases
 Change of State 3
3.2 Latent heat

A Energy and change of state

100 °C 100 °C 0 °C
0 °C
Heat and Gases
 Change of State 3
3.2 Latent heat

A Energy and change of state

Molecular
K.E.
decreases

Molecular P.E.
decreases
Heat and Gases
 Change of State 3
3.2 Latent heat

A Energy and change of state

• Latent heat
the energy absorbed or
released when a body changes
its state
latent heat latent heat

solid liqui gas

d
latent heat latent heat

Heat and Gases 36

 Change of State 3

• During change of state,

latent heat = Δ internal energy

internal internal energy

energy

laten laten
t t
heat heat
melting freezing
or or
vaporization time condensation time
0 0

Heat and Gases 37

 Change of State 3
Expt 1 Cooling curve of octadecan-1-
ol
Purpose

To study how the temperature of octadecan-

1-ol changes when it cools from a liquid to a
solid.
thermomete
r

boiling tube

water bath

octadecan-1-ol

Heat and Gases 38

 Change of State 3
Procedure

Cooling curve of octadecan-1-

ol
Heat and Gases 39
 Change of State 3
B Temperature and change of state

• Cooling curve of octadecan-1-ol

temp.
temperature
remains
temperature drops constant
as the liquid cools temperature drops again until
it reaches the room
temperature
freezing
point

room temp.

liquid &
liquid solid solid time

Heat and Gases 40

 Change of State 3

The mixture
liquid solid

• During freezing, proportion of

liquid and solid changes
• Temperature remains
constant

temp
.

time

Heat and Gases 41

 Change of State 3

• If no energy was further removed

⇒ freezing stops

⇒ the proportion remains unchanged

59 °C 30% solid
octadecan-1-ol 70% liquid

59 °C
water bath

Heat and Gases 42

 Change of State 3

Length of time

• The faster the energy is removed (i.e. higher P)

⇒ shorter freezing time & steeper slope

temp.

higher P
time

Heat and Gases 43

 Change of State 3
C Molecular KE and PE

During a change of state

• No change in temperature ⇒ no change in
molecular KE
• Energylatent heator=released
absorbed change in
= molecular
change inPE
molecular PE

• latent heat of fusion

= change in molecular PE during melting / freezing
• latent heat of vaporization
Heat and Gases 44
 Change of State 3

molecul molecul
behaviour of amount of energy
process ar ar
molecules absorbed or released
PE KE
melting or
vaporization
absorb energy
⇒ break bonds  — = latent heat

absorb energy
 temperature ⇒ move faster on
average
—  = C ΔT

solidification
or
condensation
form bonds
⇒ release energy  — = latent heat

move slower on
 temperature average
⇒ release energy
—  = C ΔT

Heat and Gases 45

 Change of State 3
D Solid to liquid to gas

• Stage 1,3,5: PE stays almost the same

• Stage 2,4: absorbs energy but ΔT = 0

temp.
5
boiling point 4
3
melting point 2
1

↑KE ↑PE ↑KE ↑PE ↑KE

solid solid liquid liquid gas KE PE
+ liquid + gas

Heat and Gases 46

 Change of State 3
temp. 5
4
3
2
1

time

• latent heat of vaporization ≫ latent heat of fusion

⇒ duration of stage 4 ≫ duration of stage 2

(∵ the same power)
Microscopic interpretati
on of change of state
Heat and Gases 47
 Change of State 3
3.3 Specific latent heat

A Latent heat per unit mass

• Similar to heat capacity, latent heat depends on
mass & materials
• To compare the latent heat of different materials ⇒
Specific latent heat (ℓ)

the energy absorbed or released by

1 kg of
the material during a change of
state

Heat and Gases 48

 Change of State 3

Formulas

• Unit

Heat and Gases 49

 Change of State 3

• Specific latent heat of fusion

(ℓf) of ice = 334 kJ kg−1

• To change 100 g ice at 0 °C

into 100 g water at 0 °C

E = mℓf = (0.1)(334) = 33.4 kJ

Heat and Gases 50

 Change of State 3

• Specific latent heat of

vaporization (ℓv) of water
= 2260 kJ kg−1
• To change 500 g water at
100 °C into 500 g steam at
100 °C

E = mℓv = (0.5)(2260) = 1130

kJ

Heat and Gases 51

 Change of State 3
13. What is the time, in minutes, required to heat 0.5 kg ice at -
50oC to water at 20oC using a heater of power 200 W?
Given: specific heat capacity of ice = 2100 J kg-1 oC-1
specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 oC-1
specific latent heat of fusion of = 3.34 x 105 J kg-1
ice
Energy required to change 0.5 kg ice at -50C into 0.5 kg ice at 0C
= (0.5)(2100)[0 - (-50)] = 52500 J
Energy required to change 0.5 kg ice at 0C into 0.5 kg water at 0C
= (0.5)(3.34x105) = 167000 J
Energy required to change 0.5 kg water at 0C into 0.5 kg water at 20C
= (0.5)(4200)(20-0) = 42000 J

E = 52500 + 167000 + 42000 =261500 J

Time required = E / P = 261500 / 200 = 1307.5 s =21.8 min

Heat and Gases 52

 Change of State 3

Thermal properties

• In general, ℓv ≫ ℓf ≫ c for the same material

∵ strength of molecular bond: solid ≫ liquid ≫≫≫
gas slips past each
other

strong
weaker
bond fixed
bond
solid position
liquid

very weak
bond
moves
gas freely

Heat and Gases 53

 Change of State 3

• Water has high ℓv, ℓf and c

• Material with high boiling point and melting point

may not have large ℓv and ℓf (e.g. mercury)

water alcohol mercury

ℓv / kJ kg−1 2260 855 29.5

boiling point /
°C
100 78 357
ℓf / kJ kg−1 334 108 11.3
melting point /
°C
0 −114 −39
c / kJ °C−1 kg−1 4.2 2.44 0.4

Heat and Gases 54

 Change of State 3

Example 1 Heating curve for melting

Suppose 800 g of a substance is heated

uniformly at a rate of 400 W and changes from a
solid to a liquid. The graph shows how its
temperature changes with time.

Heat and Gases 55

 Change of State 3

From the graph, find

(a) its melting point.

Heat and Gases 56

 Change of State 3
Solution

(a) Temperature remains constant during change of

state

⇒ melting point = 80 °C

change
solid liquid
of state

Heat and Gases 57

 Change of State 3

From the graph, find

(b) its specific latent heat of fusion.

Heat and Gases 58

 Change of State 3
Solution

(b) Temperature remains unchanged for 13 minutes.

13 min

change
of state

Heat and Gases 59

 Change of State 3
Solution

(b) Energy supplied by the heater

E = Pt = (400)(13 × 60) = 3.12 × 105 J

By E = mℓf , we have

ℓf = = 3.90 × 105 J kg−1

==390
390××10
1033JJkg
kg−1
−1
=390
= 390kJ
kJ
kg−1
kg
−1

Heat and Gases 60

 Change of State 3

From the graph, find

(c) its specific heat capacity in solid state.

Heat and Gases 61

 Change of State 3
Solution

(c) The substance is in solid state in the first 12 min.

By E = mc ΔT and E = Pt , we have
c= = 6000 J kg−1 ℃−1

12 min

solid

Heat and Gases 62

 Change of State 3
B Measuring the specific latent heat
Specific latent heat of fusion of i
Purpose ce I

To determine the specific latent heat of

fusion of ice.

Heat and Gases 63

 Change of State 3
Procedure

Heat and Gases 64

 Change of State 3
Procedure

Heat and Gases 65

 Change of State 3
Procedure

Heat and Gases 66

 Change of State 3
Precautions

1. The heating part of the heater should be

completely immersed in the water.

2. Stir the mixture before taking a measurement to

ensure a uniform temperature.

Heat and Gases 67

 Change of State 3
Discussion

1. What is the function of the ice bath?

To eliminate the heat gained from the surroundings.

Heat and Gases 68

 Change of State 3
Discussion

2. The experimental value of ℓf is different from the

standard value. Suggest a possible reason.
Any ONE of the following:
• Water adheres to the ice cubes in the two measurements of the
total mass of the container B and the water inside.
• When the containers are taken out from the ice bath, there is heat
absorbed from the surroundings.
(Accept other reasonable answers.)

Heat and Gases 69

 Change of State 3
B Measuring the specific latent heat

Specific latent heat of fusion of ice I

I

Heat and Gases 70

 Change of State 3
Example 2 Finding specific latent
heat of fusion of ice

Equaldripping
Equal drippingrate:
rate:to
toensure
ensurethe
the
temperaturesof
temperatures ofthe
thetwo
twofunnels
funnels
ofice
of iceare
arealike,
alike,both
bothatat00°C.
°C.

Heat and Gases 71

 Change of State 3

(a) Why should crushed ice be used?

crushed
ice

Heat and Gases 72

 Change of State 3
Solution

(a) To ensure a good thermal contact

between the heater and the ice.

size of ice ↓
⇒ contact
area ↑
Also,the
Also, theinitial
initialtemperature
temperatureof
of
00°C
°Cisismore
moreeasily
easilyreached.
reached.

Heat and Gases 73

 Change of State 3

(b) What is the function of the control set-up?

control
set-up

Heat and Gases 74

 Change of State 3
Solution

(b) To estimate the amount of ice melted by

the heat from the surroundings.

contro experiment
l al set-up
set-up

melted by
melted by heat heater
from
surroundings
Heat and Gases 75
 Change of State 3

(c) Suggest TWO more precautions to ensure an

accurate result.

Heat and Gases 76

 Change of State 3
Solution

(c) Any two:

• Immerse the heating part of the heater into the

ice completely.

• Use the same amount of ice in the two funnels.

• Use melting ice to ensure the initial

temperature is 0 °C. OR:Begin
OR: Beginto
tocollect
collectwater
wateronly
onlywhen
when
thefunnels
the funnelsdrip
dripatatthe
thesame
samerate.
rate.

Heat and Gases 77

 Change of State 3

(d) The following data is obtained.

Find the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.

mass of water in beaker A = 0.051 kg

mass of water in beaker B = 0.017 kg

initial joulemeter reading = 20 310 J

final joulemeter reading = 33 775 J

Heat and Gases 78

 Change of State 3
Solution mmAA== 0.0510.051kg
kg
mBB == 0.017
0.017kg
kg

(d) Energy supplied to heater E

m
EEintial = 20
intial = 20310
310JJ

= 33 775 − 20 310
EEfinal
final == 33
33775
775JJ

= 13 465 J

Mass of ice melted by heater m

= 0.051 − 0.017
= 0.034 kg

∴ Specific latent heat of fusion of ice ℓf

= = 3.96 × 105 J kg−1

Heat and Gases 79

 Change of State 3

(e) The result is larger than the standard value

334 kJ kg−1. Account for the difference.

Heat and Gases 80

 Change of State 3
Solution

Some energy supplied by the heater is lost to the

surroundings.

Heat and Gases 81

 Change of State 3
What-if

Sam says, ‘If the funnels are wrapped in cotton

wool so as to reduce any heat gained from the
surroundings, the result will be improved.’

Do you agree? Why?

No

The control set-up has already eliminated the effect of the heat
gained from the surroundings.

Heat and Gases 82

 Change of State 3
B Measuring the specific latent heat

Purpose Specific latent heat of vaporization of w

ater

To determine the specific latent heat of

vaporization of water.
kilowatt-hour
meter immersion heater

electronic balance

Heat and Gases 83

 Change of State 3
Procedure

Heat and Gases 84

 Change of State 3
Procedure

Heat and Gases 85

 Change of State 3
Precautions

1. Completely immerse the heating part of the heater

in water.

2. Wrap the beaker with cotton wool (not shown in the

photo).

3. Dry the water droplets formed on the beaker before

taking reading from the electronic balance in step
3.

Heat and Gases 86

 Change of State 3
Discussion

1. If the precautions above are ignored, how will the

result be affected?

If any one of the precautions is ignored, the result will be larger.

Heat and Gases 87

 Change of State 3
Discussion

2. What are the possible sources of error in this

experiment? How can the experiment be improved?
• Error: There is heat lost to the surroundings.
Improvement: Replace the beaker with a better thermal
insulator.
• Error: Steam condensed on the upper part of the heater
may fall back to the beaker.
Improvement: Wipe the upper part of the heater
regularly with a dry cloth.

Heat and Gases 88

 Change of State 3
Discussion

2. What are the possible sources of error in this

experiment? How can the experiment be improved?
• Error: Water splashed out during heating.
Improvement: Water level should not too high.
(Accept other reasonable answers.)

Heat and Gases 89

 Change of State 3

Example 3 Finding specific

latent heat of vaporization
of water

Heat and Gases 90

 Change of State 3

(a) Find the specific latent heat of vaporization

of water.

Heat and Gases 91

 Change of State 3
Solution mminitial = 0.512
initial = 0.512kgkg
mfinal = 0.394
0.394kg
kg

(a) Mass of water boiled away m

m final =
revolutionper
revolution per kW
kW hh== 400
400

= 0.512 − 0.394 = 0.118 kg

no. of
no. of revolution
revolution== 32
32

Energy supplied per revolution

= 1 kW h/400 = 3.6 × 106 J/400 = 9000 J
Total energy supplied E
= 9000 J × 32 = 288 000 J

∴ Specific latent heat of vaporization of water ℓv

= ≈ 2.44 × 106 J kg−1

Heat and Gases 92

 Change of State 3

(b) The experimental value is larger than the

standard value. Would the following factors
account for this?

(i) Some energy is lost to the surroundings.

Solution

Yes

∵ E (energy required) is overestimated.

Heat and Gases 93

 Change of State 3

(b) The experimental value is larger than the

standard value. Would the following factors
account for this?

(ii) Some steam condenses and drips back into

the beaker.
Solution

Yes

∵ m (mass of water boiled away) is

underestimated.
Heat and Gases 94
 Change of State 3

(b) The experimental value is larger than the

standard value. Would the following factors
account for this?

(iii) Some boiling water splashes out of the

beaker.
Solution

No

m is overestimated ⇒ smaller result

Heat and Gases 95
 Change of State 3
What-if

Would the result be more accurate if she

(i) set up a control experiment with the heater not

switched on?

No

Heat and Gases 96

 Change of State 3
What-if

Would the result be more accurate if she

(ii) stirred the water throughout the experiment?

No

Heat and Gases 97

 Change of State 3
What-if

Would the result be more accurate if she

(iii) covered the beaker with a lid?

No

This even defeats the purpose of the experiment

because the water vapour cannot escape freely. The
actual mass of water vaporized cannot be accurately
measured.

Heat and Gases 98

 Change of State 3
C The importance of evaporation
to the cooling of hot water

• Water has a very high specific latent heat.

• Latent heat Δm∙ℓv

1 g is evaporated
= 0.001 kg × 2260 kJ
kg−1
= 2.26 kJ
m = 200 g • ΔT
c = 4.2 kJ °C−1 kg−1
ℓv = 2260 kJ kg−1
=
• Evaporation has a strong cooling effect.
≈ 2.7 °C

Heat and Gases 99

 Change of State 3

Expt 4 Evaporation and cooling

Purpose

To study the contribution of heat loss by

evaporation to the cooling of water.

Heat and Gases 100

 Change of State 3
Procedure

Heat and Gases 101

 Change of State 3
Discussion

1. Find the percentage of E over Etot. Is the

contribution of evaporation significant?

The percentage is about 40% to 50%.

So the contribution of evaporation is significant.

Heat and Gases 102

 Change of State 3
Discussion

2. In the calculation, we assumed the change in mass

is small and use the initial mass m0 to estimate the
total heat loss Etot. Is it reasonable to do so?

This assumption is reasonable because ∆m is small (only a few

grams) compared with m0 ( ≈200 g).

Heat and Gases 103

 Change of State 3

Example 4 Cooling effect of sweating

Heat and Gases 104

 Change of State 3

(a) Find the average rate at which the energy

generated by the runner is lost through
evaporation of sweat.

Heat and Gases 105

 Change of State 3
Solution

(a) The rate of energy lost through evaporation of

sweat

P= = 810 W

Heat and Gases 106

 Change of State 3

(b) If the energy could not be carried away from his

body, how long in minutes would it take for
his body to rise from 37 °C to 42 °C?

Take the average specific heat capacity of the

human body to be 3470 J kg−1 °C−1.

Heat and Gases 107

 Change of State 3
Solution

(b) Let t be the time taken for the body temperature

to rise to

42 °C.

By E = mc ΔT , we get

810 × t = 55 × 3470 × (42 – 37)

∴ t = 1178 s ≈ 19.6 min

Heat and Gases 108

 Change of State 3

Example 5 Turning ice into steam

Assume no energy loss to the surroundings.

(a) How much energy is required to change 0.5

kg of ice at −20 °C to steam at 120 °C?

specific latent heat of fusion of ice 334 kJ kg−1

specific latent heat of vaporization
2260 kJ kg−1
of water
2.1 kJ kg−1
specific heat capacity of ice
°C−1
4.2 kJ kg−1
specific heat capacity of water
°C−1
specific heat capacity of water 1.9 kJ kg−1
vapour °C−1
Heat and Gases 109
 Change of State 3
Tactics

Divide the whole process into stages:

Heat and Gases 110

 Change of State 3
Solution

(a)

ℓf 334 kJ kg−1 2.1 kJ kg−1 1.9 kJ kg−1

cice cvapour
°C−1 °C−1
ℓv 2260 kJ kg−1
4.2 kJ kg−1
cwater

−20 °C → 0 °C: E1 = mc1ΔT1 = (0.5)(2.1)(20) =

°C−1

21 kJ

ice → water: E2 = mℓf = (0.5)(334) = 167 kJ

0 °C → 100 °C:
Heat and Gases E3 = mc3ΔT3 = (0.5)(4.2)(100) =
111
 Change of State 3
Solution

(a)

ℓf 334 kJ kg−1 2.1 kJ kg−1 1.9 kJ kg−1

cice cvapour
°C−1 °C−1
ℓv 2260 kJ kg−1
4.2 kJ kg−1
cwater

water → steam: E4 = mℓv = (0.5)(2260) = 1130 kJ

°C−1

100 °C → 120 °C: E5 = mc5ΔT5 = (0.5)(1.9)(20) =

19 kJ

∴ Total energy:
Heat and Gases E = 1547 kJ = 1.55 × 106 J 112
 Change of State 3

(b) How long is the whole process if the heating

power is 1 kW?

Heat and Gases 113

 Change of State 3
Solution

(b) Total time t

= 1.55 × 103 s = 25.8 min

Heat and Gases 114

 Change of State 3
What-if

If the initial mass of the ice is 1 kg, how would the

answers in (a) change?

Double

All the energy values, E1 to E5, are directly proportional to the

mass m; so is the total energy E.

Heat and Gases 115

 Change of State 3
What-if

If the initial mass of the ice is 1 kg, how would the

answers in (b) change?

Double

By E = Pt, the time t doubles as the energy E doubles.

Heat and Gases 116

 Change of State 3

Example 6 Making a cold drink

Forthermal
For thermalproperties
propertiesof
ofwater,
water,
seeExample
see Example3.5
3.5on
onp.
p.117.
117.

Heat and Gases 117

 Change of State 3

(a) What is the least amount of ice needed to

lower the temperature of the juice to 0 °C?

Heat and Gases 118

 Change of State 3
Tactics

Step 1: Divide the whole process into different stages.

Step 2: Identify which body loses energy and which body gains
energy.

Step 3: Apply formulas:

E = mc ΔT & E = mℓ

Step 4: Apply conservation of energy:

A’s loss = B’s gain

Step 5: Solve the equations.

Heat and Gases 119

 Change of State 3
Solution

(a) Step 1
T = 25 °C

25 °C juice → 0 °C juice
T = 0 °C

0 °C ice → 0 °C water

loses E1 gains E2

Step 2
juice: loses heat
ice: gains heat

T = 0 °C

Heat and Gases 120

 Change of State 3
Solution

(a) Step 3
E1 = mc ΔT
= 0.25 × 3800 × (25 − 0) = 23 750 J
E2 = mℓf = 3.34 × 105m1

Step 4
E1 = E2

Step 5
23 750 = 3.34 × 105m1
∴ m1 ≈ 0.0711 kg
Heat and Gases 121
 Change of State 3

(b) What is the least amount of ice needed to lower

the temperature of the juice to 10 °C?

Heat and Gases 122

 Change of State 3
Solution
T = 25 °C

(a) Step 1
T = 0 °C

25 °C juice → 10 °C juice
0 °C ice → 0 °C water → 10 °C water gains E2

T = 0 °C
loses E1

Step 2
juice: loses heat
gains E3

ice: gains heat

T = 10 °C

Heat and Gases 123

 Change of State 3
Solution

(a) Step 3

E1 = mc ΔT
= 0.25 × 3800 × (25 − 10)
= 14 250 J

E2 + E3
= mℓf + mc ΔT
= m2 × (3.34 × 105)
+ m2 × 4200 × (10 − 0)
= 376 000m2
Heat and Gases 124
 Change of State 3
Solution

(a) Step 4
E1 = E2 + E3

Step 5
14 250 = 376 000m2
∴ m2 ≈ 0.0379 kg

Heat and Gases 125

 Change of State 3

Example 7 Mixing ice and steam

1 kg of 100 °C steam is pumped into an equal

amount of 0 °C ice. Assume no energy is lost.

What is the final temperature T of the mixture?

Forthermal
For thermalproperties
propertiesof
ofwater,
water,
seeExample
see Example3.5
3.5on
onp.
p.117.
117.

Heat and Gases 126

 Change of State 3
Tactics

If you simply assume all ice melts and all steam

condenses, and set up an equation like this:

mℓv + mc (100 − T) = mℓf + mc (T − 0)

T > 100 °C is impossible! This means that not all

steam actually condenses.
Heat and Gases 127
 Change of State 3
Tactics

Compare the energy intakes and energy outflows

to determine the final state.

steam:

ice:

Heat and Gases 128

 Change of State 3
Solution

If all the steam condenses,

E1 = mℓv = 1 × 2260 = 2260 kJ

When all the ice melts & rises from 0 °C to 100 °C,
E2 = mℓf = 1 × 334 = 334 kJ
E3 = mc ΔT = 1 × 4.2 × 100 = 420 kJ

Heat and Gases 129

 Change of State 3
Solution

E2 (= 334 kJ) + E3 (= 420 kJ) < E1 (= 2260 kJ)

⇒ not all of the steam condenses

⇒ final state is a mixture of steam and water at 100

°C

Heat and Gases 130

 Change of State 3
Remarks

Suppose mass Δm of steam is required to condense in

order to turn all the ice into 100 °C water. By
conservation of energy, in kJ,

E 2 + E 3 = Δm ∙ ℓv

334 + 420 = 2260 Δm

∴ Δm = 0.334kg

Thus the final mixture consists of

(a) water of mass = 1 + 0.334 = 1.334 kg
(b) steam of mass = 1 − 0.334 = 0.666 kg
Heat and Gases 131
 Change of State 3
What-if

If there is heat lost to the surroundings, would the mass

of water in the final mixture be larger or smaller than
1.334 kg?

Larger

If there is heat loss, by energy conservation,

Eloss + E2 + E3 = ∆m·ℓv

∴ Mass ∆m of steam condensed becomes larger,

i.e. there will be more water (mass = 1+∆m ) in final mixture.
Heat and Gases 132