Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates can be represented by the formula (CH2O)n, where n is the

number of carbons in the molecule. In other words, the ratio of carbon to
hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in carbohydrate molecules. This formula also
explains the origin of the term “carbohydrate”: the components are carbon
(“carbo”) and the components of water (hence, “hydrate”). Carbohydrates are
classified into three subtypes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
.polysaccharides
Monosaccharides (mono– = “one”; sacchar– = “sweet”) are simple sugars,
the most common of which is glucose. In monosaccharides, the number of
carbons usually ranges from three to seven. Most monosaccharide names
end with the –ose. If the sugar has an aldehyde group (the functional group
with the structure R-CHO), it is known as an aldose, and if it has a ketone
group (the functional group with the structure RC=O, it is known as a
ketose. Depending on the number of carbons in the sugar, they also may be
known as trioses (three carbons), pentoses (five carbons), and or hexoses
.(six carbons)
An Aldose contains an aldehyde with two or more hydroxyl groups
attached; one of the hydroxyl groups is at end opposite to the aldehyde.
An Aldose is a type of monosaccharide, which is plays a key role in the
development of nucleic acids. The two simplest forms of Aldoses are L- and
D-Glyceraldehydes, which are three-carbon structures that each contain one
aldehyde and two hydroxyl groups. Aldoses can have three or more
carbons. Aldoses are distinguishable by the carbonyl(C=O) group located at
the end of the carbon chain, which differs from ketose, which has the
.carbonyl group in the middle of the carbon chain
This figure: Monosaccharides are classified based on the position
of their carbonyl group and the number of carbons in the
backbone. Aldoses have a carbonyl group (indicated in green) at
the end of the carbon chain, and ketoses have a carbonyl group in
the middle of the carbon chain. Trioses, pentoses, and hexoses
.have three, five, and six carbon backbones
The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6. In humans, glucose is an
important source of energy. During cellular respiration, energy is released
from glucose, and that energy is used to help make adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water, and
glucose in turn is used for energy requirements for the plant. Excess
glucose is often stored as starch by humans and other animals that feed on
.plants
Galactose (part of lactose, or milk sugar) and fructose (part of sucrose, or fruit
sugar) are other common monosaccharides. Although glucose, galactose, and
fructose all have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6), they differ structurally
and chemically because of the different arrangement of functional groups
.around the carbon atom
Disaccharides (di– = “two”) form when two monosaccharides
undergo a dehydration reaction. During this process, the hydroxyl
group of one monosaccharide combines with the hydrogen of
another monosaccharide, releasing a molecule of water and
forming a covalent bond. A covalent bond formed between a
carbohydrate molecule and another molecule is known as
.a glycosidic bond
This figure. Sucrose is formed when a monomer of glucose
and a monomer of fructose are joined in a dehydration
reaction to form a glycosidic bond. In the process, a water
molecule is lost. In sucrose, a glycosidic linkage is formed
.between carbon 1 in glucose and carbon 2 in fructose
Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose.
Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of the monomers glucose and
galactose. It is found naturally in milk. Maltose or malt sugar, is a
disaccharide formed by a dehydration reaction between two
glucose molecules. The most common disaccharide is sucrose or
table sugar, which is composed of the monomers glucose and
.fructose
Polysaccharides

A long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds is

known as a polysaccharide (poly– = “many”). The chain may be
branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of
monosaccharides. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are
.primary examples of polysaccharides
Starch is the stored form of sugars in plants and is made up of a mixture of
amylose and amylopectin. Plants are able to synthesize glucose, and the excess
glucose, beyond the plant’s immediate energy needs, is stored as starch in
different plant parts. The starch provides food for humans and animals. The
starch that is consumed by humans is broken down by enzymes, such as salivary
amylases, into smaller molecules, such as maltose and glucose. The cells can
.then absorb the glucose
Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and is made
up of monomers of glucose. Whenever blood glucose levels
decrease, glycogen is broken down to release glucose in a process
.known as glycogenolysis

Cellulose is the cell wall of plants is mostly made of cellulose;

this provides structural support to the cell. Cellulose is made up of
.glucose monomers that are linked by glycosidic bonds
Thank you