The Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)

1.1 General Concepts:

• An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high gain (A ≈ ∞)
differential amplifier with high input impedance (Zi ≈ ∞) and
low output impedance (Zo ≈ 0).
• Typical uses of the operational amplifier are to provide voltage
amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity), oscillators, filter
circuits, and many types of instrumentation circuits.
• An op-amp contains a number of differential amplifier stages to
achieve a very high voltage gain.
• The standard operational amplifier symbol is shown in Fig. 1-1(a).
• It has two input terminals, the inverting (−) input and the non
inverting (+) input, and one output terminal.
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• Each input results in either the same or an opposite polarity (or phase)
output, depending on whether the signal is applied to the plus (+) or the
minus (−) input.
• The typical op-amp operates with two dc supply voltages, one positive and
the other negative, as shown in Fig. 1-1(b).
• Usually these dc voltage terminals are left off the schematic symbol for
simplicity but are understood to be there.
1.2 Block Diagram and Differential Amplifier of an Op-Amp
• A typical op-amp is made up of three types of amplifier circuit: a
differential amplifier, a voltage amplifier, and a push-pull amplifier, as
shown in Fig. 1-2.

• A differential amplifier is the input stage for the op-amp, It provides

amplification of the difference voltage between the two inputs.

• The second stage is usually a class A amplifier that provides additional

gain.

• Some op-amps may have more than one voltage amplifier stage.

• A push pull class B amplifier is typically used for the output stage.
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• A differential amplifier forms the input stage of operational
amplifiers.
• The term differential comes from the amplifier's ability to amplify
the difference of two input signals applied to its inputs.
• Only the difference in the two signals is amplified; if there is no
difference, the output is zero.
• A basic differential amplifier circuit and its symbol are shown in
Fig. 1-3.
• The transistors (Q1 and Q2) and the collector resistors (RC1 and
RC2) are carefully matched to have identical characteristics.
• Notice that the two transistors share a single emitter resistor, RE.
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1.3 Op-Amp Operation Modes
• The differential amplifier exhibits three modes of operation based on the type
of input (and/or output) signals.
• These modes are single-ended, double-ended or differential, and common.
• Since the differential amplifier is the input stage of the op-amp, the op-amp
exhibits the same modes.
Single-Ended Input:
• Single-ended input operation results when the input signal is connected to one
input with the other input connected to ground.

• Fig. 1-4 shows the signals connected for this operation.

• In Fig. 1-4(a), the input is applied to the plus input (with minus input at
ground), which results in an output having the same polarity as the applied
input signal.
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• Fig. 1-4(b) shows an input signal applied to the minus input, the
output then being opposite in phase to the applied signal.
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Double-Ended (Differential) Input:
In addition to using only one input, it is possible to apply signals at
each input-this being a double-ended operation.

Fig. 1-5(a) shows an input, Vd, applied between the two input
terminals (recall that neither input is at ground), with the resulting
amplified output in phase with that applied between the plus and
minus inputs.

Fig. 1.5(b) shows the same action resulting when two separate
signals are applied to the inputs, the difference signal being Vi1 −
Vi2
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Double-Ended Output
• While the operation discussed so far had a single output, the op-amp can
also be operated with opposite outputs, as shown in Fig. 1-6(a).

• An input applied to either input will result in outputs from both output
terminals, these outputs always being opposite in polarity.

• Fig. 1-6(b) shows a single-ended input with a double ended output.

• As shown, the signal applied to the plus input results in two amplified
outputs of opposite polarity.

• Fig. 1-6(c) shows the same operation with a single output measured
between output terminals (not with respect to ground).
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• This difference output signal is Vo1 − Vo2.

• The difference output is also referred to as a floating signal since neither

output terminal is the ground (reference) terminal.

• Notice that the difference output is twice as large as either Vo1 or Vo2 since
they are of opposite polarity and subtracting them results in twice their
amplitude.

• Fig. 1-6(d) shows a differential input, differential output operation. The

input is applied between the two input terminals and the output taken from
between the two output terminals.

• This is fully differential operation.

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Common-Mode Operation:

When the same input signals are applied to both inputs, common-
mode operation results, as shown in Fig. 1-7.

Ideally, the two inputs are equally amplified, and since they result in
opposite polarity signals at the output, these signals cancel,
resulting in 0-V output.

Practically, a small output signal will result.

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Common-Mode Rejection:
• A significant feature of a differential connection is that the signals which are
opposite at the inputs are highly amplified.

• While those which are common to the two inputs are only slightly amplified-
the overall operation being to amplify the difference signal while rejecting
the common signal at the two inputs.

• Since noise (any unwanted input signal) is generally common to both

inputs, the differential connection tends to provide attenuation of this
unwanted input.

• While providing an amplified output of the difference signal applied to the

inputs. This operating feature, referred to as common-mode rejection.
1.4 Common-Mode Reject Ratio (CMRR)
• One of the more important features of a differential circuit connection, as
provided in an op-amp, is the circuit’s ability to greatly amplify signals that
are opposite at the two inputs.

• While only slightly amplifying signals that are common to both inputs.

• An op-amp provides an output component that is due to the amplification

of the difference of the signals applied to the plus and minus inputs and a
component due to the signals common to both inputs.

• Since amplification of the opposite input signals is much greater than that
of the common input signals, the circuit provides a common mode rejection
as described by a numerical value called the common-mode rejection ratio
(CMRR).
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Differential Inputs:
When separate inputs are applied to the op-amp, the resulting difference
signal is the difference between the two inputs.

Common Inputs:
When both input signals are the same, a common signal element due to the
two inputs can be defined as the average of the sum of the two signals.

Output Voltage:
Since any signals applied to an op-amp in general have both in-phase and out-
of phase components, the resulting output can be expressed as
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• Where Ad = differential gain, and Ac = common-mode gain of the amplifier.

• Having obtained Ad and Ac, we can now calculate a value for the common-
mode rejection ratio (CMRR), which is defined by the following equation:
Exercise

Calculate the CMRR and express it in decibel for the circuit measurements
shown in Fig. 1-8. [Answers: 666.7, 56.48 dB]
Exercise

Determine the output voltage of an op-amp for input voltages of V i1 = 150

µV, Vi2 = 140 µV. The amplifier has a differential gain of A d = 4000 and the
value of CMRR is: (a) 100, and (b) 105 .
[Answers: (a) 45.8 mV, (b) 40.006 mV]
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