DEVELOPMENT

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive

Development
Jean Piaget

 Piaget was a Swiss psychologist with a background in biology.

 He noticed age-related similarities in how children attempted to
solve certain tasks.
 He saw that within specific age ranges there were specific types of
deficits and specific types of strengths in problem-solving skills.
Piaget’s Theory
 His theory describes how children’s thinking and learning
develops
 He believed knowledge is built by the child over time.
 Children are active learners or active thinkers, always trying
to make sense of the world.
 Knowledge is the result of interactions:

Child

Environmen
t
Understandi
ng

Interest

Learning
 To make sense of the world, children develop schemas.
 Schema:
 A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
 Conceptual models of how the world works
 Schemas and stages build on one another through learning by:
 Assimilation
 Accommodation
Assimilation
 The process of interpreting new experiences
by incorporating them into existing schemes.
Accommodation

 Theprocess of modifying existing

schemes in order to incorporate or adapt
to new experiences.
 “That animal is much bigger than a dog,
it has shorter legs, and its face looks
different. It’s not a dog. It’s a bear.”
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive
Development
Stages of Cognitive
Development
 Piaget proposed that children
move through four stages.
 Periods of time are consistent in
age and developmental
sequence.
 Age ranges are
averages.
 Some children are in
transition from one
stage to the next.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
 Lawrence Kohlberg's ideas of moral development are based on the premise
that at birth, all humans are void of morals, ethics, and honesty.
 He identified the family as the first source of values and moral development
for an individual.
 He believed that as one's intelligence and ability to interact with others
matures, so does one's patterns of moral behavior
 Kohlberg believed...and was able to demonstrate through studies...that
people progressed in their moral reasoning (i.e., in their bases for ethical
behavior) through a series of stages. He believed that there were six
identifiable stages which could be more generally classified into three levels.
Heinz Dilemma
 Heinz's wife was near death, and her only hope was a drug
that had been discovered by a pharmacist who was selling it
for an exorbitant price. The drug cost $20,000 to make, and
the pharmacist was selling it for $200,000. Heinz could only
raise $50,000 and insurance wouldn't make up the
difference. He offered what he had to the pharmacist, and
when his offer was rejected, Heinz said he would pay the
rest later. Still the pharmacist refused. In desperation, Heinz
considered stealing the drug. Would it be wrong for him to
do that?
 Should Heinz have broken into the store to steal the drug for
his wife? Why or why not?
Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral
Development
Stage I: Punishment-Obedient
Orientation
 What is right is to obey the rules, avoid physical damage to
persons and property.
 At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute.
 The reason is that one wants to
avoid punishment.
Stage II: Instrumental Relativist
Orientation.
 Right action consists of what instrumentally satisfies one’s own
needs and occasionally the needs of others.
 Human relations are viewed in terms such as those of the market
place.
 Elements of fairness, reciprocity, and equal sharing are present,
but they are always interpreted in a physical, pragmatic way.
 Reciprocity is a matter of ‘you scratch
my back and I’ll scratch yours’
Stage III: The Interpersonal
Concordance or “Good Boy”
 Individual's moral judgment is motivated by a need to avoid rejection,
disaffection, or disapproval from others
 Good behavior is what pleases or helps others and is approved by them.
 One earns approval by being ‘nice’
Stage IV: The “Law and Order”
Orientation
 Individual's moral judgment is motivated by a need to not be
criticized by a true authority figure
 “The individual is oriented toward authority, fixed rules, and the
maintenance of the social order. Right behavior consists in doing
one’s duty, showing respect for authority, and maintaining the
given social order for its own sake.” (Kohlberg, 1971)
Stage V: Social Principles Contract

 Acts for the welfare of others

 Wants other people to be safe and
happy; willing to change law if
necessary
 Human rights take precedence over
laws
 Stage VI: Universal Principles of
Conscious
 Acts because of her/his own conscience/set of beliefs
 Wants all human beings to be respected for their dignity, believes in
justice and equality; will disregard law if necessary
 Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self-
chosen ethical principles that appeal to logical comprehensiveness,
universality, and consistency.
At heart, these are universal principles of justice, of the reciprocity
and equality of the human rights, and of respect for the dignity of
human beings as individual persons. (Kohlberg, 1971)
Gender Differences in Moral
Development
 Psychologist Carol Gilligan (1996) argues that because of men’s
and women’s distinctive socialization experiences, a fundamental
difference exists in the way each gender views moral behavior.
 According to Gilligan, men view morality primarily in terms of
broad principles, such as justice and fairness.
 In contrast, women see it in terms of responsibility toward
individuals and willingness to make sacrifices to help a specific
individual within the context of a particular relationship.
 Compassion for individuals is a more salient factor in moral
behavior for women than it is for men.
Erickson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development
Psychosocial Development Theory

 Psychosocial development theory is based on eight stages of

development
 Erikson’s theory is based on the idea that development through
life is a series of stages which are each defined by a crisis or
challenge
 The early stages provide the foundations for later stages so if a
child does not resolve a crisis in a particular stage, they will have
problems in later stages
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

 Infancy (birth to 12 -18 months)

 Caregiver meets needs: child develops trust
 Caregiver does not meet needs: child develops mistrust
 If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue
of hope.

Mama? Papa?
 Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame &
Doubt

 Toddler (ages 1-3)

 Child able to exercise some degree of choice
 Child’s independence is thwarted: child develops feelings of self-
doubt, shame in dealing with others
 Basic Strength: Will
 Determination to exercise freedom of choice in face of society’s
demands

Up, up and away?

 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

 Preschool (3 to 5 years)
 Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities
with others.
 Children who are successful at this stage develop a sense of initiative &
feel capable and able to lead others.
 Those who fail to acquire these skills
are left with a sense of guilt &
self-doubt
 Basic strength: Purpose
 Courage to imagine and pursue
goals
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

 School age (6 to teens)

 Child develops cognitive abilities to enable in task completion (school work,
play)
 Successful completion leads children to develop a feeling of competence and
belief in their skills.
 Those who are unsuccessful doubt their ability to be successful.
 Basic strength: Competence
 Exertion of skill and intelligence in pursuing and completing tasks

Scared of school?
 Stages 1-4
 Largely determined by others (parents, teachers)
 Stages 5-8
 Individual has more control over environment
 Individual responsibility for crisis resolution in each stage
 Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion

 Adolescence (teens to 20's)

 A common question adolescents ask is a straight-forward question of identity:
"Who am I?"
 During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a
sense of self. They form their identity based upon the outcome of their
explorations
 Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement will emerge from this
stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.
 Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will insecure and confused
about themselves and the future.
 Basic strength: Fidelity - means loyalty, the ability to live by society’s standards
despite their imperfections and incompleteness and inconsistencies.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

 Young adulthood (20's to 35-40 years)

 Undertake productive work and establish intimate relationships
 Inability to establish intimacy leads to social isolation
 Basic strength: Love
 Mutual devotion in a shared identity
 Fusing of oneself with another person
Stage 7: Generativity vs.
Stagnation
 Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years)
 Generativity: Interest in guiding the next generation
 Stagnation: When one is only concerned with one’s own needs
and comforts
 Basic strength: Care
 Broad concern for others
 Need to teach others
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
 Late adulthood (from 60 years)
 This stage is focused on reflecting back on life.
 Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom.
 While failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
 Basic strength: Wisdom
 Detached concern with the whole of life