Hypotheses

Week 4
• A hypothesis is an imaginary statement of the
relationship between two or more variables’
(Kerlinger, 1986: 17).
• A hypothesis is a tentative statement about
something, the validity of which is usually
unknown’ (Black and Champion 1976: 126).
Basic form of the research
hypothesis:
There is a relationship between
variable X and variable Y.
 Research hypotheses, ex. 1-2

There is a relationship between critical thinking

ability and performance on the Science
Concepts Test.

There is a relationship between the amount of

study time and the number of items correct on a
geometry test.
 Research hypotheses, ex. 3-4

There is a relationship between parenting

style/time for child and adolescents'
academic achievement.

There is a relationship between social skills

training and peer acceptance.
 Working hypothesis

Serves as a starting point for the

researcher. It is not a “formal”
hypothesis.
 Working hypotheses, ex. 1-2:
There is a significant difference in the math
achievement of 8th graders who spend more time-
on-task for worked examples and those who
spend less time-on-task.
 Working hypotheses, ex. 3-4
There will be a significant difference in science
achievement between students who are taught
science through “interactive collaboration” and
comparable students taught through “creative
exploration.”

The mean Science Concepts Test scores of 9th

grade boys and girls will significantly differ
following science instruction.
 Working hypotheses, ex. 5:

Self-esteem scores will significantly differ for

peer-rejected 5th grade boys who receive
social skills training and comparable boys
who do not receive training.
 Directional hypothesis

Not only that a difference exists

between or among 2 or more groups,
but also the direction of the difference.
 Directional hypotheses, ex. 1-2
The mean score of male 12th graders will be
significantly greater than the mean score of
female 12th graders, after one semester of
instruction, on the Science Concepts Test.

Special education teachers will report

significantly higher rates of "burn-out" than
will regular education teachers.
 Directional hypotheses, ex. 3-4
There is a positive relationship between the
number of older siblings and the social maturity
scores of six year old children.

Children who attended preschool will show

significantly greater gains in first grade reading
achievement than will comparable children who
did not attend preschool.
 Directional hypotheses, ex. 5-6
10th grade biology students who are instructed
using multimedia will have significantly higher test
scores than will comparable students receiving only
lecture-based instruction.

High school students with behavior disorders who

are taught conflict resolution techniques will exhibit
significantly fewer instances of aggressive
behaviors than will comparable students who are
not taught these techniques.
 Null hypothesis
When you construct a hypothesis stipulating
that there is no difference between two
situations, groups, outcomes, or the
prevalence of a condition or phenomenon,
this is called a null hypothesis and is
usually written as H0.
 Null hypotheses, ex. 1-2
There will be no significant difference in the
average scores of male and female 9th graders
on the Science Concepts Test following one
semester of science instruction.

There is no relationship between the amount of

study time and the number of items correct on
a geometry test.
 Null hypotheses, ex. 3-4
There is no relationship between adults' reading
practices and their literacy proficiencies, as
determined by their performance on NALS
assessment.

There is no relationship between the ability

level of students with whom teachers work and
teachers' susceptibility to "burn-out".
 Null hypotheses, ex. 5-6
There will be no significant differences in 5th grade
academic performance between students who were
enrolled in Project Follow-Through during grades 1-3
and those who were not enrolled.

There will be no significant differences in the academic

achievement of 10th grade biology students who are
instructed using multimedia technology and comparable
students who receive lecture-based instruction.
Working and directional are
alternative hypotheses to the
null hypothesis.
Which type of hypothesis is best
to use?

-Your research question will determine the

type of hypothesis you select
-The research literature will determine the
type of hypothesis you select
 Possible Outcomes in
Hypothesis Testing
True False

Accept Correct Error

Reject Error Correct

 Possible Outcomes in
Hypothesis Testing
True False
Correct
Accept Error
Decision
Type II Error

Correct
Reject Error
Decision
Type I Error

Type I Error: Rejecting a True Hypothesis

Type II Error: Accepting a False Hypothesis
Selecting a Study Design
Types of study design
 Study designs based on the number of
contacts

1. cross-sectional studies;
2. before-and-after studies;
3. longitudinal studies
 Study designs based on the number of
contacts
1. cross-sectional studies;
• The socioeconomic–demographic characteristics of
immigrants in Pakistan.
• The incidence of HIV-positive cases in JPJ,
Pakistan.
• The reasons for homelessness among young people.
• The relationship between the home environment
and the academic performance of a child at school.
• The attitudes of students towards the facilities
available in their library.
 The before-and-after study design
• It is the most appropriate design for measuring the
impact or effectiveness of a program.
• A before-and-after design can be described as two sets
of cross-sectional data collection points on the same
population to find out the change in the phenomenon
or variable(s) between two points in time.
• The change is measured by comparing the difference
in the phenomenon or variable(s) before and after the
intervention.
• The impact of administrative restructuring on the
quality of services provided by an organisation.
• The effect of a drug awareness program on the
knowledge about, and use of, drugs among young
people.
• The impact of incentives on the productivity of
employees in an organisation.
• The impact of maternal and child health services on the
infant mortality rate.
• The effect of an advertisement on the sale of a product.
 The longitudinal study design
• To determine the pattern of change in
relation to time, a longitudinal design is
used;
• for example, when you wish to study the
proportion of people adopting a program
over a period.
• In longitudinal studies the study population
is visited a number of times at regular
intervals, usually over a long period, to
collect the required information.
• These intervals are not fixed so their length
may vary from study to study.
• Intervals might be as short as a week or longer
than a year.
• Irrespective of the size of the interval, the type
of information gathered each time is identical.
• Although the data collected is from the same
study population, it may or may not be from
the same respondents.
• A longitudinal study can be seen as a series of
repetitive cross-sectional studies.
 Study designs based on the
reference period
• retrospective;
• prospective;
• retrospective–prospective.
 The retrospective study design
• Retrospective studies investigate a
phenomenon, situation, problem or issue
that has happened in the past.
• They are usually conducted either on the
basis of the data available for that period or
on the basis of respondents’ recall of the
situation.
 e.g
• The living conditions of Pakistani and
Indian peoples before separation in 1947.
• Agri and economic opportunities for people
of Mazafarabad before 2008 earthquak.
• A historical analysis of migratory
movements in Eastern Europe between
1915 and 1945.
 The prospective study design
• Prospective studies refer to the likely
prevalence of a phenomenon, situation,
problem, attitude or outcome in the future.
• Such studies attempt to establish the
outcome of an event or what is likely to
happen.
• To determine, under field conditions, the
impact of maternal and child health services
on the level of infant mortality.
• To establish the effects of a counselling
service on the extent of marital problems.
• To find out the effect of parental involvement
on the level of academic achievement of their
children.
• To measure the effects of a change in
migration policy on the extent of immigration
in Australia.
 The retrospective–prospective
study design
• focus on past trends in a phenomenon and
study it into the future.
• Part of the data is collected retrospectively
from the existing records before the
intervention is introduced and
• then the study population is followed to
ascertain the impact of the intervention
• The impact of incentives on the
productivity of the employees of an
organisation.
• The impact of maternal and child health
services on the infant mortality rate.
• The effect of an advertisement on the sale
of a product.
 Study designs based on the nature of the
investigation

• experimental;
• non-experimental;
• quasi- or semi-experimental
 Other designs commonly used in
quantitative research

• The cross-over comparative experimental

design
• The replicated cross-sectional design
• Trend studies
• Panel studies
• Blind studies
• Double-blind studies