BASES OF ELECTROTECHNICS

~Theory of electric circuits ~

BASES OF ELECTROTECHNICS I.
Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Information Technology
Specialization: IETTI
Academic year: 2022-2023
 Associate professor PhD Eng. Denisa ȘTEȚ
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Department of Electrotechnics and Measurement
Member of Energy Transition Research Center

[email protected] https://users.utcluj.ro/~denisad/

 My teaching activity:
- Electromagnetic Compatibility course (year 4, Faculty of Electrical Engineering)
- Bases of electrotechnics course (year 1, ETTI eng.)
- Theory of Electric Circuits, Theory of Electromagnetic Field, Electromagnetic
Compatibility and Numerical Methods lab/seminar (FIE)

 My research activity:

Electromagnetic Interferences, Computational https://entrec.utcluj.ro

Electromagnetics, Energy Transition, Energy
Efficiency,
 My administrative activity:
• Member of Electrical Engineering Faculty Council
• Career Counselor for the students at Faculty of Electrical Engineering
2
• Co-founder and coordinator of ROBOTELIER
 Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic field theory
are the two fundamental theories upon which all
branches of electrical engineering are built.

The basic electric circuit theory

course – an excellent starting
point for a beginning student in
electrical engineering education


 Many branches of electrical engineering, such as energy

production, electric machines, control, electronics,
communications and instrumentation, are based on electric circuit
theory.
3
 The objectives of the Course
1. To present systematically the basic theory of the electric circuits
2. To introduce electrical components and the fundamental laws that
govern the behavior of an electrical circuit in case of:
- DC and AC circuits;
- two-ports networks;
- steady-state periodic non-sinusoidal regime;
- transient regime of liniar circuits;
- three-phase circuits;
- transmission lines.

 On successful completion of this course, students will be able to:

analyze the operation of linear circuits in response to DC, sinusoidal,
non-sinusoidal and transient waveforms.

4
Teaching details:
14 lectures Assessment Details:
(2 hours/lecture) Exam, 2 hours, 100%
14 seminars (ANSWER TO MULTIPLE CHOICE
TEST + SOLVE PROBLEMS)
(2 hours/seminar)

Number of ECTS credit points: 4 5

6
Reading and References

Students are provided with set of notes: posted on TEAMS

Students requiring extra material are recommended:

Ed. U.T.Press Cluj-Napoca, 2016 Ed. Casa Cartii de Stiinta, 1998

ISBN 978-606-737-140-6 ISBN 973-9204-98-8

7
Chapter 1 - DC CIRCUITS (recap from semester I)

Chapter 2 – AC CIRCUITS

Chapter 3 – THREE PHASE CIRCUITS

Chapter 4 – TWO PORT NETWORKS

Chapter 5 – STEADY-STATE PERIODIC NON-SINUSOIDAL REGIME

Chapter 6 – TRANSIENT REGIME

8
CHAPTER 1: DC
Circuits
1. Basic concepts
 1.1 INTRODUCTION

• An electrical circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements

A simple electrical circuit

Electric circuit of a radio transmitter

Electric circuits are used in numerous electrical systems to accomplish different

tasks.
Our objectives in this course is not the study of various uses and applications of
the circuits.
Rather, our major concern is the analysis of the circuits (study of the
behavior of the circuit):
-How does it respond to a given input 10
-How do the interconnected elements and devices in the circuit interact
 1.2 SYSTEM OF UNITS

 International System of Units (SI) adopted

by the General Conference on Weights and
Measures in 1960

11
 1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT

• The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge.

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter

consists, measured in coulombs (C)

12
 1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT

• The motion of charges creates electric current

- It is conventional to take the current flow as the

movement of positive charges. That is, opposite to the
flow of negative charges.
(This convention was introduced by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the
American scientist and inventor)
Electric current due to flow of
electronic charge in conductor - Because the current in metallic conductors is due to
negatively charged electrons, we will follow the universally
accepted convention that current is the net flow of positive
charges.

Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes

(A)

The charge transferred between time t 0 and t

13
 1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT

A direct current (DC) is An alternating current (AC) is a

a current that remains current that varies sinusoidally with
constant with time. time.

- The direction of current flow is

conventionally taken as the direction of
positive charge movement.

a) Positive current flow b) negative current

flow
14
1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT

15
 1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT

EXAMPLE 1.1.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1.1.

16
 1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT

EXAMPLE 1.2.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1.2.

17
 1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT

EXAMPLE 1.3.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1.3.

18
 1.4 VOLTAGE

- To move the electron in a conductor in a particular

direction requires some work or energy transfer: an
external electromotive force (emf) also known as
voltage or potential difference.

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge
through an element, measured in volts (V)

- w is energy in joules (J)

- Q is charge in coulombs (C)

Polarity of voltage uab

19
 1.4 VOLTAGE

On the left: the voltage increases by 9V from the – sign to the + sign
On the right: the voltage decreases by 9V from the – sign t the + sign

A DC voltage: voltage that remains constant with time (is represented by U).
Is commonly produced by a battery.

An AC voltage: voltage that varies sinusoidally with time (is represented by u).
Is commonly produced by an electric generator.

20
1.4 VOLTAGE

21
 1.4 VOLTAGE

 Current and voltage are the two basic variables in electric circuits.
 The common term signal is used for an electric quantity such as a current or a
voltage (or even electromagnetic wave) when it is used for conveying information.
 Engineers prefer to call such variables signals rather than mathematical functions
of time becuase of their importance in communications and other disciplines.

KEEP IN MIND:

Electric current is always through an element and

electric voltage is always across the element
between two points.

22
 1.5 POWER AND ENERGY

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured

in watts (W)

or

- p is power in watts (W) - The power p is a time-varying quantity called the

- w is energy in joules (J)
- t is time in seconds (s) instantaneous power.
- If p has a + sign, power is being delivered to or
absorbed by the element.
- If p has a - sign, power is being supplied by the
element.

Reference
polarities for
power using the
passive sign
convention

23
 1.5 POWER AND ENERGY

Law of conservation of energy: the algebraic sum of

power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero.

Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

The electric power utility companies measure

energy in watts-hours (Wh), where:

24
 1.5 POWER AND ENERGY

EXAMPLE 1.4.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1.4.

25
 1.5 POWER AND ENERGY

EXAMPLE 1.5.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1.5.

 1.5 POWER AND ENERGY

EXAMPLE 1.6.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1.6.

27
 1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

There are two types of elements found in electric circuits:

PASSIVE ELEMENTS which are not capable to generate energy
(resistors, capacitors and inductors)
ACTIVE ELEMENTS which are capable to generate energy (generators,
batteries, operational amplifiers)
Passive circuits and active circuits

Source: [https://powerinception.com/]

28
 1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified

voltage or current that is completely independent of other elements.
Ideal → source has zero internal resistance

An ideal independent VOLTAGE source is an active element that delivers

to the circuit whatever current is necessary to maintain its terminal
voltage.
Element dipolar ideal, capabil să menţină între bornele sale o tensiune electrică independentă de
curentul debitat

Voltage – current characteristic

29
 1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

An ideal independent CURRENT source is an active element that provides

a specified current completely independent of the voltage across the
source.
Element dipolar ideal care debitează un curent de intensitate precizată independentă de tensiunea
între bornele sale.
- The ideal current source delivers to the circuit whatever voltage is necessary to
maintain the designated current.

The arrows indicates the direction of current

Voltage – current characteristic

30
 1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the

source quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.

- Dependent sources are useful in modeling

elements such us transistors, operational
amplifiers and integrated circuits.

31
SUMMARY

32
REVIEW QUESTIONS

33
 2.1 OHM’S LAW

- Materials in general have the characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of

electric charge. This physical property, or ability to resist current is kown as
resistance (R).

- ρ is known as resistivity of the material (ohm/m)

- A cross section area of the material (m·m)
- L is the lenght of the material (m)

The resistance R of an element

denotes its ability to resist the
flow of electric current; it is
measured in ohms (Ω).

35
2.1 OHM’S LAW

36
 2.1 OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s Law states that the voltage V across a resistor is directly

proportional to the current I flowing through the resistor.

- Since the value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important that we
consider the two extreme possible values of R.

A short circuit is a circuit element An open circuit is a circuit element

with resistance approaching to zero. with resistance approaching infinity.
37
 2.1 OHM’S LAW

- A resistors that obeys Ohm’s Law is kown as a linear resistor.

The current – voltage The current – voltage characteristic

characteristic of a linear resistor of a nonlinear resistor

- A resistors that not obeys Ohm’s Law is kown as a nonlinear resistor (its
resistance varies with current).

Linear circuits and non-linear circuits

38
2.1 OHM’S LAW

39
 2.1 OHM’S LAW

Conductance G is the ability to conduct the flow of electric current; it

is measured in siemens (S).

- The power disipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R:

- The power disipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of G:

40
 EXAMPLE 2.1.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.1.

41
EXAMPLE 2.2.

42
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.2.

43
 2.2 NODES, BRANCHES and LOOPS

A node (n) is the point of connection between more than two branches.

A branch (b) is the connections between two nodes.

A loop (l) is any closed path in a circuit.

b=4
l=3
n=2

44
 2.3 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) applies to the nodes of a network and states
that the algebraic sum of the currents at a node is zero.

(there are n – 1 independent nodes or equations)

- We shall assign positive polarity (+) to a current leaving a node, and
negative polarity (-) to a current entering a node.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) the algebric sum of all voltages around a
closed path (or loop) iz zero.

Sum of voltage drops = sum of voltage rise

(there are l – n + 1 independent loops or equations)

45
 2.3 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

For Examples and Practice problems

using Ohm’s Law, KCL and KVL, see SEMINAR 1

46
 2.4 SERIES RESISTORS and VOLTAGE DIVISION

The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series

is the sum of the individual resistances.

Principle of voltage division

47
 2.5 PARALLEL RESISTORS and CURRENT DIVISION

The equivalent conductance of resistors connected in parallel is the sum

of their individual conductances.

Principle of current division

48
 2.6 WYE – DELTA TRANSFORMATIONS

- This situasions arise in circuits analysis when the resistors are neither in parallel nor in
series.
- Many circuits of the type shown in Fig.1 (a bridge network), can pe simplified by using
three-terminal equivalent networks such: the wye (Y) or tee (T) network, and delta (Δ) or pi
(Π) network.
- They are used in three-phase networks,
electrical filters and matching networks

Fig.1 The bridge network

Wye (Y) network Tee (T) network Delta (Δ) network Pi (Π) network

49
 2.6 WYE – DELTA TRANSFORMATIONS

 DELTA TO WYE CONVERSION

Delta (Δ) network Wye (Y) network

- We not need to memorize equations; to

transform Δ in Y, we create an extra node n
and follow this conversion rule:

Each resistor in the Y network is the

product of the resistors in the two
adiacent Δ branches, divided by the sum Supeposition of Y and Δ
of the three Δ resistors. networks as an aid in
transforming one to another
50
 2.6 WYE – DELTA TRANSFORMATIONS

 WYE TO DELTA CONVERSION

- We not need to memorize equations; to transform Δ in Y, we create an extra node n and

follow this conversion rule:

Each resistor in the Δ network is the sum of the all possible products of
Y resistors taken two time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.

51
 2.6 WYE – DELTA TRANSFORMATIONS

The Δ and Y networks are said to be balanced when:

Under this conditions, conversion formula become:

Why RY
is l ess than
R Δ?
KEEP IN MIND:

In making Δ/Y transformation, we do not take anything out of the circuit or

put anything new. We are merely substituting different but mathematically
equivalent three-terminal networks patterns to create a circuit in which
resistors are either in series or in parallel, allowing us to calculate Req if
necessary.
52
 For Examples and Practice problems
regarding calculation of Req, Geq and Δ/Y conversion, see
SEMINAR 1

53
SUMMARY

54
SUMMARY

55
SUMMARY

56
SUMMARY

57
58
REVIEW QUESTIONS

59
REVIEW QUESTIONS

60
 References
[1] Charlews K. Alexander, Matthew N.O.Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric
Circuits (Fifth Edition), published by McGraw-Hill, 2013
[2] Radu V. Ciupa, Vasile Topa, The Theory of Electric Circuits, published
by Casa Cartii de Stiinta, 1998
[3] Dan. D Micu, Laura Darabant, Denisa Stet et al., Teoria circuitelor
electrice. Probleme, published by UTPress, 2016

61