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BM2101
Research Methodology

Research Theory
Objectives
 Recognize your research philosophy
 Classify different types of research methodologies
 Relate research designs with relevant research methodologies
 Interpret the style of the research document
 Judge the appropriateness of the chosen research design
 Distinguish between inductive and deductive approaches
 Define variables, measurements and their related terms
 Compare structure of quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods research study
 Consider the implication of time constraints on the choice of research design
 Explain the difference between quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods designs
 Able to critique others’ research designs
 Develop and justify one’s own research design

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Introduction
 Research is about acquiring knowledge and developing understanding, collecting facts and interpreting
them to build up a picture of the world around us, and even within us.
 It is necessary to know something about philosophy as a background to your research
 Everyone is a philosopher – everyone has a concept of the world.

 All philosophical positions and their attendant methodologies, explicitly or implicitly, hold a view about
reality.
 This view will determine what can be regarded as legitimate knowledge.

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Why philosophical issues need to understood?
 Help to clarify research designs
 What kind of evidence is required

 How is the evidence to be gathered and interpreted

 How will the evidence provide good answers to the basic questions being investigated in the research

 Help to recognize which designs will work and which will not
 Help the researcher identify, and even create, designs that may be outside his or her past experience
 How to adopt research designs according to the constraints of different subjects or knowledge

structures

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Introduction
 Philosophy works by making arguments explicit.
 You need to develop sensitivity towards philosophical issues so that you can evaluate research critically.
 Helps to discern the underlying, and perhaps contentious, assumptions upon which research reports are
based even when these are not explicit, and thus enable you to judge the appropriateness of the methods
that have been employed and the validity of the conclusions reached.
 Your research, and how you carry it out, is deeply influenced by the theory or philosophy that underpins it.
 In science, the goal of testing hypotheses is to arrive at or test a theory
 Theory: An organized system of assumptions and principles that attempts to explain certain phenomena
and how they are related
 Theories help us to organize and explain the data gathered in research studies

 Theories allow us to develop a framework regarding the facts in a certain area

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Philosophical concerns
 Ontology or metaphysics: about the nature of reality and
existence
 Epistemology: best ways of enquiring into the nature of
the world
Ontology Philosophical assumptions about the nature
of reality
Epistemology A general set of assumptions about ways of
inquiring into the nature of the world
(physical and social worlds)
Methodology A combination of techniques used to inquire
into a specific situation
Methods and Individual techniques for data collection,
Techniques analysis, etc.

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Metaphysics
 Concerned with questions such as what it is to be, who we are, what is knowledge, what are things, what
is time and space.
 Idealism
 advocates that reality is all in the mind, that everything that exists is in some way dependent on the

activity of the mind.

 Phenomena are in a state of constant change e.g., music is not just sound, it is an emotional

experience.
 Materialism (or reductionism)
 Only physical things and their interactions exist and that our minds and consciousness are wholly due to

the active operation of materials.

 Phenomena are independent of social factors and are therefore stable e.g., music is just vibrations in

the air.

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Epistemology
 Theory of knowledge, especially about its validation and the methods used.
 Deals with how we know things and what we can regard as acceptable knowledge in a
discipline.
 Concerned with the reliability of our senses and the power of the mind.
 Two basic approaches:
 empiricism – knowledge gained by sensory experience (using inductive reasoning)

 rationalism – knowledge gained by reasoning (using deductive reasoning)

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Inductive Reasoning – The Empiricist’s Approach
 Inductive reasoning starts from specific observations or sensory experiences and then develops a general
conclusion from them.
 We come to conclusions from what we have experienced and then generalize from them, that is, set them
up as a rule or belief.
 Your task is to make sense of the interview data you collected through your analysis. The results of this
analysis would be the formulation of a theory, often expressed as a conceptual framework
 Theory follows data; Concerned with the context in which events take place. The study of a small sample
of subjects might be more appropriate than a large number as with the deductive approach.

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Inductive Reasoning – The Empiricist’s Approach
 Problems with induction
 how many observations must be made before we can reasonably draw a conclusion that is reliable
enough to generalize from
 how many situations and under which conditions should the observations be made so that true
conclusions can be reached?

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Deductive Reasoning – The Rationalist’s Approach
 Deductive reasoning begins with general statements (premises) and, through logical argument, comes to a
specific conclusion.

 This is the simplest form of deductive argument, and is call a syllogism.

 It consists of a general statement (called the first premise), followed a more specific statement inferred
from this (the second premise), and then a conclusion which follows on logically from the two statements.
 Highly structured methodology to facilitate replication, an important issue to ensure reliability
 Concepts need to be operationalised in a way that enables facts to be measured, often quantitatively.
 Generalisation: select our sample carefully and for it to be of sufficient size.

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Deductive Reasoning – The Rationalist’s Approach
 Enquiry is guided by the theory which precedes it.
 Theories are speculative answers to perceived problems, and are tested by observation and experiment.
 In order for a theory to be tested, it must be expressed as a statement called a hypothesis.
 The essential nature of a hypothesis is that it must be falsifiable.
 It must be logically possible to make true observational statements which conflict with the hypothesis,

and thus can falsify it.

 The truth of the conclusions depends very much on the truth of the premise on which it is based.

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Further examples
 All numbers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5. The number 35 ends with a 5, so it must be
divisible by 5.
 All birds have feathers. All robins are birds. Therefore, robins have feathers.
 It's dangerous to drive on icy streets. The streets are icy now, so it would be dangerous to drive
on the streets.
 All cats have a keen sense of smell. Fluffy is a cat, so Fluffy has a keen sense of smell.
 Cacti are plants, and all plants perform photosynthesis. Therefore, cacti perform photosynthesis.
 Red meat has iron in it, and beef is red meat. Therefore, beef has iron in it.
 Acute angles are less than 90 degrees. This angle is 40 degrees, so it must be an acute angle.
 All noble gases are stable. Helium is a noble gas, so helium is stable.
 Elephants have cells in their bodies, and all cells have DNA. Therefore, elephants have DNA.
 All horses have manes. The Arabian is a horse; therefore, Arabians have manes.
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Invalid Deductive Reasoning example
 All swans are white. Jane is white. Therefore, Jane is a swan.
 All farmers like burgers. Jethro likes chicken wings. Therefore, Jethro is not a farmer.
 All actors are handsome. Tom Cruise is handsome. Therefore, Tom Cruise is an actor.

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Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning
 Inductive Reasoning: The first lipstick I pulled from my bag is red. The second lipstick I pulled from my bag
is red. Therefore, all the lipsticks in my bag are red.
Deductive Reasoning: The first lipstick I pulled from my bag is red. All lipsticks in my bag are red.
Therefore, the second lipstick I pull from my bag will be red, too.
 Inductive Reasoning: My mother is Irish. She has blond hair. Therefore, everyone from Ireland has blond
hair.
Deductive Reasoning: My mother is Irish. Everyone from Ireland has blond hair. Therefore, my mother has
blond hair.
 Inductive Reasoning: Most of our snowstorms come from the north. It's starting to snow. This snowstorm
must be coming from the north.
Deductive Reasoning: All of our snowstorms come from the north. It's starting to snow. Therefore, the
storm is coming from the north.
 Inductive Reasoning: Maximilian is a shelter dog. He is happy. All shelter dogs are happy.
Deductive Reasoning: Maximillian is a shelter dog. All shelter dogs are happy. Therefore, he is happy.

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Abduction
 Instead of moving from theory to data (as in deduction) or data to theory (as in induction), an abductive
research moves back and forth, in effect combining deduction and induction.
 Abduction works with the observation of a ‘surprising fact’; it then works out a plausible theory of how this
could have occurred.
 Why is the choice I make about my approach to theory development is important?
 It enables you to take a more informed decision about your research design
 It will help you to think about research strategies and methodological choices that will work for you and,

crucially, those that will not.

 Enables you to adapt your research design to cater for constraints.

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Hypothetic-Deductive Reasoning OR Scientific Method
 Combines inductive and deductive reasoning resulting in the to-and-fro process of:
 identification or clarification of a problem

 developing a hypothesis (testable theory) inductively from observations

 charting their implications by deduction;

 practical or theoretical testing of the hypothesis;

 rejecting or refining it in the light of the results.

 Realistic scientific theories consist of a combination of statements, each of which relies on assumptions
based on previous theories.
 The methods of testing are based on assumptions and influenced by surrounding conditions.
 If the predictions of the theory are not borne out in the results of the tests, it could be the underlying
premises which are at fault rather than the theory itself.

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Assumptions underlying scientific method
 Order – the universe is an ordered system that can be investigated and the underlying ‘rules’ can be
exposed.
 External reality – we all share the same reality that does not depend on our existence. We can therefore all
equally contribute to and share knowledge that reflects this reality.
 Reliability – we can rely on our senses and reasoning to produce facts that reliably interpret reality.
 Parsimony – the simpler the explanation the better. Theories should be refined to the most compact
formulation.
 Generality – the ‘rules’ of reality discovered through research can be applied in all relevant situations
regardless of time and place.

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Important Issue in the study of social sciences
 Is human society subjected to laws that exist independent of the human actors that make up society?
 Do individuals and groups create their own versions of social forces?
 Two extremes of approach
 positivism

 interpretivism

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Positivism
 Acceptance as fact that the world around us is real, and that we can find out about these realities.
 There is an order made up of atomistic, discrete and observable events.
 Knowledge is derived using scientific method and based on sensory experience gained through
experiments or comparative analysis.
 Aims at developing a unique and elegant description of any chosen aspect of the world that is true
regardless of what people think.
 By developing these scientific facts, knowledge is built up in a cumulative fashion, despite some false
starts.
 Science builds on what is already known, for example, even Einstein’s radical theories are a development
from Newton’s.
 The approach to knowledge is reductionist in character, by maintaining that less measurable sciences are
reducible to more measurable ones.
 Sociology is reducible to psychology, psychology to biology, biology to chemistry, and chemistry to physics.
 Social sciences can therefore be value free and objective.
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Positivism
 Social world exists externally, whose properties should be measured through objective methods, rather
than being inferred subjectively through sensation, reflection or intuition
 Reality is external and objective
 Knowledge is only of significance if it is based on observations of this external reality
 The label positivism refers to the importance of what is ‘posted’ – i.e., given. This emphasis the positivist
focus on strictly scientific empiricist method designed to yield pure data and facts influenced by human
interpretation or bias.
 Positivist researchers are likely to use a highly structured methodology in order to facilitate replication

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Relativism (Also called Interpretivism, Idealism, Constructivism
OR Even Constructionism)
 Based on the philosophical doctrines of idealism and humanism.
 Maintains that the view of the world that we see around us is the creation of the mind.
 Unlike the natural sciences, the researcher is not observing phenomena from outside the system, but is
inextricably bound into the human situation which he/she is studying.
 As well as concentrating on the search for constants in human behaviour which highlights the repetitive,
predictable and invariant aspect of society the researcher does not ignore what is subjective, individual
and creative – facts and values cannot be separated.
 The researcher encounters a world already interpreted and his/her job is to reveal this according to the
meanings created by humans rather than to discover universal laws.
 There can be more than one perspective and interpretation of a phenomenon.

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Social Constructionism
 Reality is not objective and exterior, but is socially constructed and given meaning by people
 One of the interpretive methods
 Reality is maintained by people rather than by objective and external factors
 Focus on what people, individually and collectively, are thinking and feeling and attention should be paid to
the ways they communicate with each other, whether verbally or non-verbally
 Normal constructionism
 Strong constructionism

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Positivism and Social Constructionism
Positivism Social Constructionism
The observer Must be independent Is part of what is being observed
Human interests Should be irrelevant Are the main drivers of science
Explanations Must demonstrate causality Aim to increase general understanding of
the situation
Research progresses Hypothesis and deductions Gathering rich data from which ideas are
through induced
Concepts Need to be defined so that they can be Should incorporate stakeholders
measured perspectives
Units of analysis Should be reduced to simplest terms May include the complexity of ‘whole’
situations
Generalization through Statistical probability Theoretical abstraction
Sampling requires Large numbers selected randomly Small numbers of cases chosen for specific
reasons

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Comparison between positivist and relativist approaches
Issue Positivist Relativist
Philosophical Realism: the world exists and is Idealism: the world exists but different
beliefs knowable as it really is. people construct it in very different
ways.
The role of To discover universal laws and To reveal different interpretations of
research generalizations. the world as made by people.
Role of Neutral observer. Part of the research process.
researcher
Theoretical Rational, using deductive and Subjective, using inductive methods
approach scientific methods and value free and value laden data.
data.
Methods Experiments or mathematical models Surveys and observations with
and quantitative analysis to validate, qualitative analysis to seek meaningful
reject or refine hypotheses. relationships and the consequences of
their interactions. Analysis of language
and meaning.
Analysis of Search for order. Society is governed Search for dynamics. Multitude of
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society by a uniform set of values and made values leading to complex interactions.
Postmodernism
 Challenges key issues such as meaning, knowledge and truth which have opened up new perspectives and
ideas about the essence of research.
 Denounces the meta-narratives (all embracing theories) of the modern movement as a product of the
Enlightenment, and insists on the inseparable links between knowledge and power.
 There is no universal knowledge or truth.
 Science is just a construct and only one of many types of knowledge that are all subjects of continual
reinvention and change.

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Critical Realism
 Based on critical reasoning
 Critical reasoning can be seen as a reconciliatory approach, which recognizes, like the positivists, the
existence of a natural order in social events and discourse, but claims that this order cannot be detected
by merely observing a pattern of events.
 The underlying order must be discovered through the process of interpretation while doing theoretical
and practical work particularly in the social sciences.
 Unlike the positivists, critical realists do not claim that there is a direct link between the concepts they
develop and the observable phenomena.
 Concepts and theories about social events are developed on the basis of their observable effects, and
interpreted in such a way that they can be understood and acted upon, even if the interpretation is open
to revision as understanding grows.
 Distinguishes critical realists from relativists, who deny the existence of such general structures divorced
from the specific event or situation and the context of the research and researcher.

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Critical Realism
 Compromise between the stronger versions of positivism and constructionism
 Starts with a realist ontology, which recognizes social conditions (such as class or wealth) as having real
consequences whether or not they are observed and then incorporates a relativist thread, which recognizes
that social life is both generated by the actions of individuals, and also has an external impact on them
 Infers from critical theory, which casts a skeptical eye on the motives and impact of powerful groups and
individuals which in an emancipatory way shows a concern for the interests of the least powerful members

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Ontologies
 Structured ontology: has three levels.
 Empirical domain

 Actual domain

 Real domain

 Causality exists as potential, rather than automatic correlation of events that is normally associated with
strong positivism
 Many of these underlying mechanisms do not work in the interest of ordinary people and employees;
greater awareness of their underlying causes will provide potential for emancipation from their effects

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Positivism / Relativism / Postmodernism
Basic beliefs Positivism / Relativism / Postmodernism /
Postpositivism Interpretivism Emancipatory
Metaphysics (nature of One reality Multiple, socially Multiple realities shaped
reality) = ontology constructed realities by social, political,
cultural, economic,
ethnic, gender and
disability values
Epistemology (nature of Objectivity is important; Interactive link between Interactive link between
knowledge; relation researcher manipulates researcher and researcher and
between knower and and observes in participants; values are participants; knowledge
would-be-known) dispassionate, objective made explicit; creating is socially and historically
manner findings situated

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Positivism Versus Interpretivism

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Ontologies with Snooker example
Ontology Realism Internal Realism Relativism Nominalism
Truth Single truth Truth exists, but is obscure There are many truths There is no truth
False Facts exist and can Facts are concrete, but Facts depend on Facts are all human
be revealed cannot be accessed directly viewpoint of observer creations

Ontology
Realism Concentrate on mapping the locations, trajectories and ricochets of different balls, and how
the rules of snooker lead to games being won or lost.
Internal Realism Sees a more complex picture: balls do not necessarily follow the principles of classical
mechanisms: they may be spun or jumped
Different tables behave in different ways
Technical abilities of players will affect the outcome
Relativism Focus less on the mechanisms of the game
Focus more on the strategies of the players and how they manoeuvre the balls to gain
advantage over opponents
Nominalism Focus could be on the way the rules could evolve over time

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Epistemologies
 Strong positivism: assumes there is a reality which exists independent of the observer. Job of the
researcher is to discover the laws and theories that explain this reality
 Positivism: reality cannot be accessed directly. So, infer the reality indirectly through surveys of large
samples of individuals, activities or organizations. Data is normally in quantitative form but may be
supplemented by qualitative data
 It is a probability that views collected provide an accurate information of the underlying situation

 Constructionist: assumes there may be many different realities. So, gather multiple perspectives through a
mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods and to gather the views and experiences of diverse
individuals and observers
 Strong constructionist: assumes there is no pre-existing reality and the aim of the researcher is to
understand how people invent structures to help them make sense of what is going on around them
 Importance is given to language and conversations between people as they create their own meanings

 Encouraged to be critical of the way meanings can be imposed by the more powerful on the less

powerful
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Other philosophies
 Hermeneutics: there is a need to have a discourse between the author and the reader. But this is not
possible in historical texts. So, we should be aware that there may be no single, and correct, interpretation
of a particular text, because both the writing and reading will be context-dependent.
 Analysis will be between context-based observations, rather than simple additions and enumerations of

mentions.
 Postmodernism:
 Critique of scientific progress, suggesting that it is not necessarily a good thing

 Associated with a somewhat experimental movement in architecture and arts, which seeks to redress

the excesses of modernism

 Ontological position opposed to realism, though it is sometimes dismissed as supporting relativism and

mere nihilism

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Other philosophies
 Structuration theory:
 Duality of structure: structure and agency should not be regarded as pre-ordained

 In order to communicate insights from social science he suggests that social scientists should attempt to

use common sense language in the normal course of their work

 Critical realism: between realism and internal realism

 Critical theory: at internal realism
 Pragmatism: Seems as a compromise between internal realism and relativism
 Hermeneutics and Pragmatism: between internal realism and relativism
 Feminism and Postmodernism: at Constructionism

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Epistemologies
Strengths Weaknesses
Strong If it works, it can provide highly Hard to implement social experiments and to
positivism compelling conclusions control for alternative explanations of results
Focus may be very narrow
Positivism Can provide wide coverage Inflexible and artificial
Potentially fast and economical Not good for process, meanings or theory
Easier to provide justification of policies generation
Implications of action not obvious
Constructionism Accepts value of multiple data sources Assess can be difficult
Enables generalizations beyond present Cannot accommodate institutional and cultural
samples differences
Greater efficiency including outsourcing Problems reconciling discrepant information
potential
Strong Good for processes, and meanings. Can be very time consuming
Constructionism Flexible and good for theory generation Analysis and interpretations are difficult
Data collection less artificial May not have credibility with policy-makers

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Ontologies, Epistemologies and Methodologies
Ontologies Realism Internal realism Relativism Nominalism
Epistemology / Strong Positivism Positivism Constructivism Strong
Methodology constructivism
Aims Discovery Exposure Convergence Invention
Starting points Hypothesis Propositions Questions Critique
Designs Experiment Large surveys; Cases and surveys Engagement and
multi-cases reflexivity
Data types Numbers and facts Numbers and words Words and numbers Discourse and
experiences
Analysis / Verification / Correlation and Triangulation and Sense-making;
interpretation Falsification regression comparison understanding
Outcomes Confirmation of Theory testing and Theory generation New insights and
theories generation actions

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Research Designs
 Positivist Research Designs (Quadrants A and D)
 Experimental Designs:
 Involves random assignment of subjects to either an experimental

or a control group
 Advantage: encourage clarity about what is to be investigated, and

should eliminate as many alternative explanations because the

random assignment ensures that the experimental and control
groups are identical in all respects, except for the focal variable
 Disadvantage: practical and ethical.
 Quasi-experimental designs:
 Use of multiple measures over time in order to reduce the effects

of control and experimental groups not being fully matched

 Validity of inferences depends critically on how equivalent the two

groups actually are

 Aspiration is to conduct research without affecting the people

under study, which would locate it in Quadrant A. The necessary

level of detachment is often difficult to sustain. 38
Research Designs
 Positivist Research Designs (Quadrants A and D)
 Survey research designs: Dominant epistemology underlying survey research methods is positivism
 Constructionist research designs: Quadrants B and C
 Action research and co-operative inquiry
 Archival research: focuses mainly on textual information and its analysis
 Ethnography: researcher should immerse him or herself in a setting and become part of the group under study in

order to understand the meanings and significations that people give to their behaviour and that of others.
 Narrative methods: contains both ontological and epistemological elements.
 Ontological view suggests that stories and myths form a central element of organizational reality, and therefore
organizational research, which ignores stories is necessarily incomplete.
 Epistemological position is that by collecting organizational stories the researcher will gain insights into
organizational life which could not be reached by more conventional means.
 May be seen as more detached (Quadrant B) if the collection of existing stories is emphasized, or more involved
(Quadrant C) if the researcher plays a role in encouraging people to invent new stories that illustrate their
feelings.

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Research Designs
 Case method:
 Mainly from positivist perspective but can also be designed in ways consistent with relativist and

constructionist perspectives.
 Less concerned with issues of validity, and more concerned with providing a rich picture of life and

behaviour in organizations or groups

 Advocates of single cases generally come from a constructionist epistemology; those who advocate

multiple cases usually fit with a more positivist epistemology

 Instrumental studies
 Expressive studies

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Research Designs
 Grounded theory:
 Designed as constructionist alternative to positivist methods, yet some respected versions now contain

positivist elements
 Key task of the researcher is to develop theory through ‘comparative method’, which means looking at

the same event or process in different settings or situations

 Different versions of grounded theory:
 Start with no pre-suppositions and allow ideas to ‘emerge’ from the data
 Familiarize with prior research and using structured, and somewhat mechanistic, processes to make
sense of the data

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Research Designs
 Constructionist studies:
 Based on direct observation and personal contacts, generally through interviews
 Takes place within single organizations but then involve sampling from numbers of individuals
 Collection of data takes place over a period of time and may include both live observations and

retrospective accounts of what has happened.

 Unit of analysis is either the individual, or specific events such as the exchange of a piece of knowledge,

or strategies employed to transfer or retain control of knowledge

 Formation of hypothesis is through:
 Sharpening up the basic constructs, and this is essentially an iterative process of moving back and
forth between the constructs and the data
 Verifying that emergent relationship between constructs fit with the evidence from each case
 Compare the emergent theory/concepts/hypotheses with the existing literature


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Research Designs
 Mixed Methods:
 Dominance
 Partnership designs
 Compensatory designs
 Analysis
 The use of mixed methods can often lead to contradictory results. If the ontologies are

very different there will be no way of resolving the confusion. However, if they are
close enough then resolution may be possible.

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 Four perspectives of validity, reliability and generalizability

Viewpoint Strong Positivist Positivist Constructionist Strong Constructionist

Validity Do the measures Do the measures provide Have a sufficient Does the study clearly
correspond closely to a good approximation to number of gain access to the
reality? the variables of interest? perspectives been experiences to those in
included? the research setting?
Reliability Has the design eliminated Will the measures yield Will similar Is there transparency
all alternative the same results on other observations be about data collection
explanations? occasions? reached by other and interpretation?
observers?
Generalizability To what extent done the How probable is it that Is the sample Do the concepts and
study confirm or patterns observed in the sufficiently diverse to constructs derived
contradict existing sample will be repeated in allow inferences to from this study have
findings in the same field? the general population? other contexts? any relevance to other
settings?

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Research Design Template
Epistemology Strong Positivist Positivist Constructionist Strong
Constructionist
Background What is the theoretical What is the theoretical What are the ongoing What are the ongoing
problem and what problem and what discussions among discussions among
studies have been studies have been researchers and researchers and
conducted to date? conducted to date? practitioners? practitioners?
Rationale What is the main gap in What are the main What perspectives What are the
existing knowledge? variables, and how are have been covered limitations in the
they related to one and what are discussions so far?
another? missing?
Research Aims Specify testable List main propositions or Identify the focal Explain how the
hypotheses questions issue or question research will add to
the existing
discussion

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 Research Design Template
Epistemology Strong Positivist Positivist Constructionist Strong
Constructionist
Data Define variables and Define dependent and Explain and justify a Identify main sources
determine measures independent variables range of data of data. How will
and determine measures collection methods interviews be
recorded /
transcribed etc.?
Sampling Explain how group Justify sample size and How will the sample Explain sampling
selection and explain how it reflects enable different strategy. Will it be
comparison will the wider population perspectives to be opportunistic,
eliminate alternative included? emergent,
explanations comparative, etc.?
Access How are experimental How can responses to What is the strategy How will insights
subjects to be questionnaires etc. be for gaining access to from co-researchers
recruited? assured? individuals, be combined?
organizations?

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Research Design Template
Epistemology Strong Positivist Positivist Constructionist Strong
Constructionist
Ethics Is participation Could results be used to Will the interests of How ‘open’ is the
voluntary? harm any participants? individuals and research? Will there
organizations be be any deception?
protected?
Unit of Analysis Differentiate between Specify whether How will units / cases What are the entities
control, experimental individuals, groups, be compared with that are to be
groups, etc events or organizations each other? compared with each
other?
Analysis Statistical procedures Statistical procedures for Arrangements for How will co-
for examining examining relationships coding interpreting researchers be
differences between between variables and making sense of involved in sense-
groups data making?

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Research Design Template
Epistemology Strong Positivist Positivist Constructionist Strong Constructionist
Process Explain stages in the Explain stages in the Explain what can be Provide realistic timing
research process research process pre-planned and what including adequate
can be open-ended provision for
contingencies
Practicalities How will groups be Who will gather How will researchers How will co-researchers
recruited? Where will data? How will it be share observations? be engaged?
experiments take place? recorded / stored? Who will do
Who will analyze it? transcriptions, etc.?
Theory How will hypotheses be In what ways will the Will the research Will the research build on
tested? results add to build on existing existing theory or develop
existing theories? theory or develop new concepts?
new concepts?
Outputs Where will the research What is the What is the How will insights be
results be published? dissemination dissemination shared with colleagues
strategy? strategy? and collaborators?

48
Some Remarks
 The response rate for the survey may be too low, and this may necessitate a change in research strategy,
such as by interviewing a new group of respondents
 Cross-sectional studies: involving the study of a particular phenomenon (or phenomena) at a particular
time
 Longitudinal studies: its main strength is its capacity to study change and development. This type of study
may also provide you with a measure of control over some of the variables being studied.
 Even with time constraints it is possible to introduce a longitudinal element to your research.
 Archival and documentary research
 Documentary research can be conducted alongside a grounded theory strategy based on qualitative
interviews and use a similar produce to analyse both sets of data.
 Can involve documentary research within a case study strategy

49
Survey
 Usually associated with deductive research approach
 May be descriptive, interpretive, or causal studies
 Popular and common strategy in business and management research and is most frequently used to
answer What, Who, Where, How much and How many questions.
 Survey is not a method of data collection. To collect survey data, we use measuring instruments such as
questionnaires and observation devices
 Allows you to collect quantitative data which you can analyze quantitatively using descriptive and
inferential statistics.
 In descriptive surveys, the intent is to infer population characteristics from a subset of the population,
called a sample
 In interpretive or causal studies based surveys, researchers ask respondents for their viewpoints on a
particular topic, preferences on a range of options, or reasons for their actions
 Case study is about depth; but survey is about breadth
50
Survey
 Surveys are popular because they provide a quick and efficient way to obtain broad answers based on a
sample before generalizing it to the population. The weaknesses of surveys include possible researcher,
sampling, and response biases. They are also less appropriate if in-depth answers are required
 Surveys may be ad hoc or carried out at regular intervals
 Cross-sectional surveys: gather information about a population using a sample at a point in time
 Not suited for understanding changes over time

 Longitudinal study: collect data over time to monitor changes. Three types:
 Trend studies using different samples.

 Cohort studies using different samples from the same cohort. Cohort is a group of individuals who

share a common characteristic such as year/period of birth or class.

 Panel studies using the same sample. Panel study helps to increase the sample size to improve the

precision of our sample estimates.

 With same samples, there is a risk of participants dropping out of the survey.
 Tend to be more expensive than cross-sectional surveys because of the need to monitor samples over

time. 51
Survey
 Pilot survey: done on a small but similar sample to determine if the survey design and method of data
collection (e.g., a questionnaire) may be improved before the actual larger scale survey.
 Sampling: Consists of identifying the:
 Sampling unit or elements: smallest unit of observations that is of interest to the researcher in a

sample.
 Household in consumer-surveys, organizations or employees in business surveys, …
 Target population: aggregate of all sampling units

 Called as target audience in consumer surveys

 Also called as theoretical population; theoretical here means a concept or idea and not a real
thing
 Sampling frame (if any): list of elements from which sampling takes place

 Unlike the theoretical population, this is real

 Not all survey have a sampling frame. For example, it is not possible to obtain a list of every fish in
a lake.
52
Survey
 Sampling: Consists of identifying the:
 Sampling method

 Probability samples: use random sampling to draw the samples from a sampling frame
 As long as the sampling frame is close to the target population, probability samples are more
accurate than non-probability samples.
 Main types of probability samples:
 Simple random samples: draw the sampling units randomly. Despite its simplicity and wide
discussion in elementary statistical textbooks, we rarely use simple random samples in actual
surveys because of the need for a large sampling frame.
 Systematic samples: first divide the target population into smaller lists and then draw the
elements following a particular pattern after a random start.

53
Survey
 Sampling: Consists of identifying the:
 Sampling method

 Main types of probability samples:

 Stratified samples: commonly used in actual surveys. First stratify the target population
according to some criteria such as gender, income, workplace, residence, or cohort. Then
draw the elements randomly from each stratum.
 Proportional stratified sampling: samples are drawn in equal proportion

 Disproportional stratified sampling: sample proportions are unequal

 Cluster samples: select random clusters rather than elements. Often used in city surveys to
identify potential respondents.

54
Survey
 Sampling: Consists of identifying the:
 Sampling method

 Non-probability samples: if a sampling frame is not available or too difficult to construct, then
non-probability samples may be used.
 Convenience samples: select based on convenience. Used when researcher is more
interested in some quick responses than in representatives.
 Purposive samples or judgemental samples: our judgement or the choice of experts is
preferred to random sampling
 Sampling errors depend on the quality of judgement. Different experts may not agree

on what is representative.

55
Survey
 Sampling: Consists of identifying the:
 Sampling method

 Non-probability samples: if a sampling frame is not available or too difficult to construct, then
non-probability samples may be used.
 Quota samples: similar to stratified sample except that chance selection is not used in each
stratum. Chosen out of convenience rather than random.
 Quota samples are popular because stratification reduces the need to select large

samples. The greater homogeneity of the sampling elements with each stratum reduces
the sampling error. A sampling frame is not required, which makes it cheaper to draw a
sample
 Snowball samples: begins with a few respondents who provide referrals for the researcher to
contact additional respondents.


56
Survey
 Sampling: Consists of identifying the:
 Sample size: No guide on sample size. Not to consider 30, as t-distribution will be close to normal

curve
 Qualitative surveys: aim should be to gather as many different views as possible.
 Quantitative surveys:
 Consider cost or difficulties to access potential respondents
 Higher power (): this means reduce the Type II error. Type II error is reduced when:
 The spread of each curve is smaller (called spread size)

 The curves are further apart (called effect size)

57
Survey
H0 is actually Person is actually
Decision True False Decision Innocent Guilty
Reject H0 Type I error Correct Guilty Type I error Correct
Accept H0 Correct Type II error Innocent Correct Type II error

 Which error is serious? Depends on the situation. For court, we don’t wish to have a justice system that
sends innocent to jail, so Type I error is serious. For manufacturing, rejecting a good batch (Type I error) by
mistake is less serious than not rejecting a bad batch (Type II error)

 If we have only few firms and we wish to do some analysis:

 Cross-sectional data is not sufficient for regression analysis due to lack of data.
 Panel study can help in getting more data, as it is obtained over time from the same sample.

58
Errors in Surveys
 Non-sampling errors:
 Administrative errors

 Respondent errors

 Conceptual errors

 Measurement errors

 Sampling errors: chance variations such as the variation of sample means from the population mean.
 From central limit theorem: the size of the variation is , where is the population standard deviation and

n is the number of samples.

59
Case Study
 In-depth inquiry into a topic or phenomenon within its real-life setting
 “case” in case study may refer to a person or group, an organization, an association, a change process, an
event as well as many other types of case subject
 Case study research sets out to understand the dynamics of the topic being studied within its setting or
context. “Understanding the dynamics of the topic” refers to the interactions between the subject of the
case and its context
 Case study research is often used when the boundaries between the phenomenon being studied and the
context within which it is being studied are not always apparent. Understanding context is fundamental to
case study research.
 The interaction between a phenomenon and its context is best understood through in depth case studies.
 Some positivist researchers have advocated using case studies inductively to build theory and develop
theoretical hypotheses, which can be tested subsequently. In this way, the use of the case study is
advocated in the early, exploratory stage of research as a complement to deductive research.

60
Case Study
 Case study research may beneficially use some combination of archival records and documentation,
different forms of observation, ethnography, interviews and focus groups, questionnaires, reflection and
the use of research diaries and other research aids.
 Case study research is likely to prove to be challenging because of its intensive and in-depth nature and
your need to be able to identify, define and gain access to a case study setting.
 Case study strategies can be distinguished based on:
 Single case versus multiple cases
 Holistic case versus embedded case

 Literal replication
 Theoretical replication

61
Case Study Vs Case Method
 Interpretive study that seeks in-depth or intensive investigation of a particular case to discover or explore something
new rather than test a hypothesis
 Tells a big story through the lens of a smell case
 Case studies are different from case methods that are widely used in business schools to teach students
 Case is a unit of study: person, team, project, organization, province, country, process, activity, or situation
 Unit should be a clearly defined and bounded system
 Actor’s perspective guides the research
 Historical case study: there is a little control over extraneous variables in a historical case study
 Case method: not a research design
 Students study a written business case in advance of each class and debate the issues in class
 Case method is a form of teaching and learning as an alternative to lectures, role playing, and other methods of
instruction
 Goal is to engage students in their learning on a real or imaginary business case

62
Case Study
 Holistic: has thick description; the researcher puts the various parts together in a coherent manner
 Thin description is one where the explanation is superficial
 Both qualitative and quantitative data can be used
 Qualitative data is more common in interpretive case studies
 Causal case studies:
 Has some relationship
 Such as in tracing the development of an organization or city, qualitative data also predominate
 Interpretive case studies: Researcher aims to interpret the data by developing conceptual categories,
supporting or challenging the assumptions made regarding them.
 Evaluate case studies: researcher goes further by adding their judgement to the phenomena found in the
data.

63
Case Study
 Sampling:
 Typical case
 Unique case
 Test case
 Multiple cases: used when
 Unsure if the selected case it typed, in which case he may use another case;
 Wants to compare and contrast different cases, such as the different ways in which village schools
are run
 Wishes to sample theoretically to build theory, to generate new ideas from a small number of cases
until the point of diminishing returns.

64
Ethnography
o Used to study the culture or social world of a group
o Literally means a written account of a people or ethnic group
o Ethnographers study people in groups, who interact with one another and share the same space, whether
this is at street level, within a work group, in an organization or within a society
o Realist ethnography
o Interpretive ethnography
o Critical ethnography
o While ethnography is a demanding strategy to use because you would need to develop some grounding in
this approach and because of the time scale and intensity involved, it may be relevant to you. If you are
currently working in an organization, there may be scope to undertake participant observation of your
workgroup or another group in the organization.

65
Action Research
 Emergent and iterative process of inquiry that is designed to develop solutions to real organizational
problems through a participative and collaborative approach, which uses different forms of knowledge, and
which will have implications for participants and organization beyond the research project
 Purpose: to promote organizational learning to produce practical outcomes through identifying issues,
planning actions, taking action and evaluating action.
 Process: the process of action research is both emergent and iterative. An action research strategy
commences within a specific context and with a research question but because it works through several
stages or iterations the focus of the questions may change as the research develops.
 Cycle 1: Teasing out the issues
 Cycle 2: Understanding the customer project
 Cycle 3: Acting on knowledge
 Each cycle involves diagnosing, planning action, taking action and evaluating action

 Includes participation, knowledge and implication

66
Grounded Theory
 Used to refer to a methodological approach, a method of inquiry and the result of a research process
 Developed as a process to analyse, interpret and explain the meanings that social actors construct to make
sense of their everyday experiences in specific situations.
 Provides a systematic approach to collect and analyse qualitative data. Its use is often well suited to the
nature of qualitative research. Whereas in quantitative research it is usual to collect a complete set of data
and then analyse these, in qualitative data it is often useful to analyse data as you collect them
 Usually referred to as taking an inductive approach. Can be appropriate to abductive as well.
 Make sure to decide how to select cases for your research.
 Select new cases to collect and analyse further data. This approach is a special form of purposive sampling,
known as theoretical sampling, which continues until theoretical saturation is reached
 Objectivist ground theory and constructivist ground theory exist.

67
Grounded Theory
 Theoretical sensitivity: using this strategy will mean you should avoid being overly sensitized to pre-existing
theoretical concepts, to allow yourself to make sense of participants’ meanings in the data to guide your
research.
 Using ground theory is time consuming, intensive and reflective.

68
Grounded Theory
 Key elements of grounded theory are:
 Early commencement of data collection
 Concurrent collection and analysis of data
 Developing codes and categories from the data as these are collected and analysed
 Use of constant comparison and writing of self-memos to develop conceptualization and build a theory
 Use of theoretical sampling and theoretical saturation aimed at building theory rather than achieving

(population) representativeness
 Use of an abductive approach that seeks to gain insights to create new conceptual possibilities which

are then examined

 Initial use of literature as a complementary source to the categories and concepts emerging in the

data, rather than as the source of categorize these data. Later use to review the place of the grounded
theory in relation to existing, published theories
 Development of a theory that is grounded in the data
69
Narrative Inquiry
 A narrative is a story; a personal account which interprets an event or sequence of events. Using the term
‘narrative’ requires a distinction to be drawn between its general meaning and the specific meaning used
here
 A narrative be defined as an account of an experience that is told in a sequence way, indicating a flow of
related events that, taken together, are significant for the narrator and which convey meaning to the
researcher.
 Structural elements that are useful to facilitate analysis of narratives
 What is the story about?
 What happened, to whom, whereabouts and why?
 What consequences arose from this?
 What is the significance of these events?
 What was the final outcome?

70
Comparative Design
 Compares and contrasts several cases to draw inferences
 Overcomes a weakness of causal study design, which does not allow for the user of comparisons to draw causal
inferences
 In terms of sample size, comparative design is a small-N design. Falls somewhere between a case study and a survey
 Researchers prefer this when there are only a few cases
 Small sample size is not suitable for multivariate statistical analyses or broad large-sample surveys
 Comparative studies are intended to be causal, that is, the researcher deliberately chooses the cases to discover
causality, rather than through random sampling
 To make comparison easier, it is helpful to reduce the number of variables to a more manageable set.
 Limitations of comparative design
 The inability to prove cause; Difficulties in finding suitable, diverse cases
 Difficulties in finding comparable cases; Difficulties in sorting out rival explanations if there are many variables and
only a few cases; The outcomes are binary
 To overcome the outcomes as binary limitations, qualitative comparative analyses considering truth tables and fuzzy or
Boolean Logic is considered. 71
Experiment
 Number of independent variables is k; list of independent variables is X; dependent variable Y
 If k is small and possibility exists for manipulating some variables to ascertain their effects on the Y by keeping other Xs
constant
 Variables X1 and X2 treatments because of the frequent use of experiments in clinical and agricultural studies
 Many researchers think experiments provide stronger evidence of causation by eliminating arrival explanations through
experimental control. However, this is only possible if there are a few variables. If k is large, it becomes more difficult to
disregard the influences of other independent variables by fixing their values
 Classical Experimental Design:
 Blind experiment
 Double-blind experiment

72
Experiment
 Classical Experimental Design
 Quasi-experimental designs:
 Less persuasive than the full classical experimental design
 Sometimes difficult to conduct the experiment and some adjustments have to be made.
 By not using a control group, perhaps because it is difficult to find another group large enough

for the experiment

 By not conducting a pre-test, perhaps because it is difficult or expensive to conduct, or because

the groups are large enough for the experimenter to assume that they are comparable
 By discarding the pre-test scores in the data analysis, possible because the pre-test scores are

used primarily as a check that both groups are comparable before the treatment is
administered

73
Experiment
 Classical Experimental Design
 Several threats to classical experimental design:
 Subjects maturing during the experiment, which may be handled by keeping the period between pre-test and
post-test short
 Measurement error
 The testing effect, where subjects become better because they learn to do better after completing the pre-
test, or they have been “taught to the test,” that is, they have been drilled to do well
 Subjects reacting differently because they know they are being observed by taking part in an experiment
(Hawthorne effect)
 An external event, such as a change of teacher teaching the control group, which may invalidate the results

74
Experiment
 Classical Experimental Design
 Researchers use a variety of techniques to ensure that the experimental and control groups are comparable. These
strategies include:
 Randomization
 Matching
 Repeat measures design
 Sampling bias through self-selection
 Parallel Group Design

75
Experiment
 Repeat Measures (or paired) Design:
 Used to deal with the problem of having two groups that are not comparable
 Only one group with sample size N is used and each student is taught in two different ways (T and U), one after
another with a sufficient gap between the two periods.
 Presence of variance among participants does not matter as we are only interested in the differences within each
participant. There is less variability in the data (as the same participant is used and might be slightly difference as
they are done one after the other), which makes it easier to detect the differences in ratings.
 Randomized Block Design
 Extraneous variable: is a variable we are not interested in but its presence confounds the analysis. Also called as
noise variable. The experimenter has to deal with the unwanted noise

76
Regression
 Examines the influence of independent variables on a dependent variable
 Dependent variable is endogenous
 Independent variable is exogenous as the model does not explain changes in it. The changes in it are
determined outside the model
 Regression differs from correlation, where the relation is symmetric without any specification on whether Y
depends on X or vice versa
 To estimate the parameters from these n equations, we usually use the method of least square or ordinary
least squares (OLS) to find the line of best fit. In OLS, we minimize the sum of squares of the residuals (e i),
and hence the terms “least squares” and “best” fit.
 Residual is the difference between an observed point and the corresponding estimated point on the
regression line
 Unlike the experiment where we physically fix the values of extraneous variables to examine causality
among a few variables of interest, it is not necessary in regression. By means of statistical control, we can
determine the effects of many independent variables on the dependent variable. 77
Regression
 Sampling:
 Number of data points (n) should be much higher than number of parameters (k)
 A rule of thumb is at least 10 points for each slope coefficient ()
 If there are insufficient data points, we risk estimating an incorrect regression line
 Collect data that vary substantially in the X-direction. Otherwise, regression line will be sensitive to any
data point
 Collect representative samples


78
Theory Vs Worldview
 Distinction between a theory and a worldview
 A worldview relates to the beliefs and values of the researcher and how these inform a study.

 Theories, in contrast, are less abstract, drawn from the literature, and provide a guiding perspective for

designing many research process aspects. From theories, methodological approaches to design follow,
such as mixed methods research, and then data collection methods.
 Four levels for Developing a research study
 Paradigm worldview (beliefs, values of the researcher)

 Theoretical lens (e.g., feminist, racial, substantive content theories)

 Methodological approach (e.g., ethnography, experiment, mixed methods)

 Methods of data collection (e.g., interviews, checklists, instruments)

79
Theory Vs Worldview
 What theory informs: A summary of the theory use:
 The theory is visualized through a model.

 Constructs (variables) are drawn from the theory and incorporated in the study aims

 From the theory, stories from the literature about the model are drawn

 The theory constructs informed the qualitative questions addressed and the quantitative instruments

and measures
 The theory also provides “starter codes and themes” for the qualitative data analyses and for

hypothesized relationships for the quantitative data analysis

 The theory contributed to useful typologies of findings, led to working hypotheses, and illustrated the

development of caregiving over time.

80
Use of theory
 In a quantitative dissertation, an entire section of a research proposal might be devoted to presenting the
broader theory guiding the study hypotheses.
 In qualitative research, the use of theory is much more varied
 Mixed methods research may contain a theoretical framework within which both quantitative and
qualitative data are collected.
 Theory can be a prediction of what the research expects to find or an inductive or deductive framework for
a study. It may be presented as a model or diagram of the relationship among variables or constructs

81
Use of Theory
 The general procedures for locating and including theory are these:
 Identity the theory (or theories) from the literature search
 Place the theory (model or conceptual framework) at the beginning of the article as an a priori framework to guide
the question or hypotheses in the study
 Write about the theory by first advancing the names of the theory to be used followed by a description how it
informs the quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods study
 Discuss the studies using the theory, especially studies closely related to the present study
 Include a diagram of the theory indicating the probable links in the theory and the major concepts or variables in
the theory
 Have the theory provide a framework for the study
 Return to the theory at the end of the study to review its role in informing findings the results. Compare the theory
use with other studies.

82
Quantitative Theory Use
 Some historical precedent exists for viewing a theory a theory as a scientific prediction or explanation for what the
researcher expects to find
 Theory in quantitative research is a “set of interrelated constructs (variables), definitions, and propositions that
presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining
natural phenomena”
 A discussion about this theory would appear in a section of a proposal in the literature review or in a separate section
called the theory base, the theoretical rationale, the theoretical perspective, or the conceptual framework.
 A theory might appear in a research study as an argument, a discussion, a figure, a rationale, or a visual model
 Investigators combine independent, mediating, and depend variables into questions based on different forms of
measures. These questions provide information about the type of relationship and the magnitude

83
Quantitative Theory Use
 Theory of attribution: hypothesis is tested over different settings with different population
 Theories are at three levels: (a) micro-level, (b) meso-level, and (c) macro-level.
 Micro-level theories provide explanations limited to small slices of time, space, or numbers of people, such
as Goffman’s theory of face work, which explains how people engage in rituals during face-to-face
interactions.
 Meso-level theories link the micro and macro levels. These are theories of organizations, social movement,
or communities, such as Collins’s theory of control in organizations.
 Macro-level theories explain larger aggregates, such as social institutions, cultural systems, and whole
societies. Lenski’s macro-level theory of social stratification, for example, explains how the amount of
surplus a society produces increases with the development of the society.

84
Variables in Quantitative Theory
 A variable refers to a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be measured or observed
and that varies among the people or organization being studied.
 Independent variables are those that influence, or affect outcomes in experimental studies. They are described as
“independent” because they are variables that are manipulated in an experiment and thus independent of all other
influences.
 Dependent variables are those that depend on the independent variables; they are the outcomes or results of the
influence of the independent variables
 Predictor variables (also called antecedent variables) are variables that are used to predict an outcome of interest in
survey method studies. Predictor variables are similar to independent variables in that they are hypothesized to affect
outcomes in a study, but dissimilar because the researcher is not able to systematically manipulate a predictor variable
 Outcome variables (also called criterion or response variables) are variables that are considered outcomes or results of
predictor variables in survey method studies. They share the same properties as dependent variables
 Intervening or mediating variables (Intervening or mediating variables) stand between the independent and dependent
variables, and they transmit the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable

85
Variables in Quantitative Theory
 Moderating variables are predictor variables that affect the direction and/or the strength of the
relationship between independent and dependent variables, or between predictor and outcome variables
 A confounding variable refers to a “third variable” that is both related to the independent (or predictor)
variable and to the dependent (or outcome) variable
 A hypothesis is a prediction about a specific event or relationship between variables
 A scale of measurement in quantitative research would be the response options available to participants on
instruments or collected by the researcher observing participants
 Endogenous variable
 Exogenous variable

86
Variables in Quantitative Theory
 Variables are measured as either categorical or continuous. Categorical scales have two types, nominal and
ordinal. Continuous scales also have two types: interval and ratio
 Nominal scales use categories that a participant can check, such as level of education
 Ordinal scale represents categories for the participant to check but provides the categories in a rank order
 Internal or ratio scale, contains a continuous scale.
 Causality means that we would expect variable X to cause variable Y
 If you aim to test a causal claim about the relationship between two or more variables in your quantitative
study, the best choice is to conduct a true experiment, which will provide more control over potential
unmeasured variables. If you are less interested in testing a causal claim or if you cannot conduct an
experiment, then survey methods can test claims about hypothesized associations between variables.
 Temporal order means that one variable precedes another in time. Because of this time ordering, one
variable affects or predicts another variable.

87
Theories in Quantitative Research
 Researchers state their theories in research proposals in several ways, such as a series of
hypothesis, if-then logic statements, or visual models
 A second way is to state a theory as a series of if-then statements that explain why one
would expect the independent variables to influence or cause the dependent variables

88
Theories in Quantitative Research
 Visual Picture:
 Indicate the strength of the relationship

among variables by inserting valence

signs on the paths. Use positive or
negative valences that postulate or infer
relationships.
 Use two-headed arrows connected to

show unanalyzed relationships between

variables not dependent upon other
relationships in the model
 Research productivity among faculty in
pharmacy schools

89
Theories in Quantitative Research

90
Qualitative Theory Use
 It appears as a deductive explanation, as a theoretical standpoint, and as an end point for a study
 Variation in Theory Use in Qualitative Research
 First, much like in quantitative research, it is used as a broad explanation for behavior and attitudes, and

it may be complete with variables, constructs, and hypotheses.

 Second, researchers increasingly use a theoretical lens or perspective in qualitative research, which

provides an overall orienting lens for the study of questions of gender, class, and race (or other issues of
marginalized groups).
 In critical ethnography, for example, researchers begin with a theory informing their studies.

91
Qualitative Theoretical Perspectives
 Some of these qualitative theoretical perspectives available to the researcher are as follows:
 Feminist perspectives view as problematic women’s diverse situations and the institutions that frame those situations.
Research topics may include policy issues related to realizing social justice for women in specific contexts or knowledge
about oppressive situations for women.
 Racialized discourses raise important questions about the control and production of knowledge, particularly about
people and communities of color.
 Critical theory perspectives are concerned with empowering human beings to transcend the constraints placed on them
by race, class, and gender.
 Queer theory is concerned with cultural and political means, and conveys the voices and experiences of individuals who
have been suppressed.
 Disability inquiry addresses understanding this population’s sociocultural perspectives allowing them to take control
over their lives rather than a biological understanding of disability.

92
Theories in Qualitative Research
 Distinct from the deductive use and theoretical standpoint
orientation, qualitative studies apply theory as a theoretical end
point for a study. This theoretical end point means that qualitative
study ends with a theoretical model, a theory, or a conceptual
model. Qualitative research is an nductive process building from
data, to broad themes, and to a generalized model or theory.

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Theories in Qualitative Research
 Propositional generalization—the researcher’s summary of interpretations and claims—to which is added
the researcher’s own personal experiences, called “naturalistic generalizations”
 “Pattern theories” are explanations that develop during naturalistic or qualitative research. Rather than the
deductive form found in quantitative studies, these pattern theories or generalizations represent
interconnected thoughts or parts linked to a whole.
 Our research tips on theory use in a qualitative proposal are as follows:
 Decide if theory is to be used in the qualitative proposal.

 If it is used, then identify how the theory will be used in the study, such as an up-front explanation, as an

end point, or as a transformative-advocacy lens.

 Locate the theory in the proposal early in the study or at the end.

 Locating the theory in qualitative research

 How theory is used affects its placement in a qualitative study. In those studies with a cultural theme or

a theoretical lens, the theory occurs in the opening passages of the study.

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Mixed Methods Theory Use
 In contrast to the use of theory in qualitative research, theories are discipline-based or social justice
theories in mixed methods research.
 There are two types of theory use in mixed methods studies: discipline-based and social justice.
 Discipline-based theory drawn from the social, behavioural, or health science literature. These theories

typically identify variables or constructs, interrelate them, and form and explain expected results for
individuals and organizations.
 Social justice theory, such as feminist research, racial or ethnic research, disability research,, lifecycle

research, and the like.

 A social justice theory perspective is incorporated into a mixed methods study in these ways:
 Indicating a framework in the opening passages of a study (e.g., feminist, participatory)

 Mentioning this framework early in a study—that it relates to a marginalized or underrepresented

community and specific issues faced by that community (e.g., oppression, power).
 Lodging this framework within a theoretical body of literature, such as feminist literature or racial

literature.
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Mixed Methods Theory Use
 A social justice theory perspective is incorporated into a mixed methods study in these ways:
 Involving the community of interest in the process of research (e.g., in the data collection).

 Taking a stand with the research question—advocating in its orientation (e.g., inequality does exist and

the research will set out to substantiate it).

 Advancing in the design the collection, analysis, and integration of both quantitative and qualitative

methods within the transformative framework.

 Talking about your experiences as a researcher and how your experiences and background shapes your

understanding of the participants and issues under study.

 Ending the study by advocating for change to help the population under study and the issue.

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Mixed Methods Theory Use
 It is important to use in mixed methods research because theory:
 Provides a framework for organizing and reporting the quantitative and qualitative data

 Brings together separate investigations or studies and reports common concepts or ideas

 Develops a common understanding among research team members, stakeholders, and funder of

research about the underlying framework for a study

 Provides a prediction for what the researcher hopes to learn

 Links concepts and ideas, often in a temporal order; and

 Provides a visual model for understanding the overall direction of a study

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Questions to Think
 Which one comes first: theory or data?
 How do you differentiate between universal theory and local knowledge?
 What is the difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal study?
 What is reverse causality in comparative studies?

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