2

WHAT DOES IT MEAN

G E O L O C AT I
ON

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 WHAT DOES IT MEAN

GEOGRAP
GI
IHNI F
C O R M AT I
ONSYST
SEMS

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 WHAT AR
E GIS
• Geographic Information System (GIS) is a system that couples
geography with IT applications, and it is designed to store, analyze,
manipulate, manage, and publish all types of geospatial data,
enriched by their locations.

• GIS applies to Earth, the Moon, Mars, your brain, the new museum
in town, a refugee camp, and the Treasure Island still to be
discovered.

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 WHAT AR
E GIS
• GIS provide the ability to create a digital environment and to enrich it
with information about the elements that populate it.

• GIS are made of hardware, software, people, methodologies and tools

to enable spatial analyses, manage large datasets, query databases,
display information in a map or graphical form, archive geographical
data.

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 T H E G E O S PA T I A L TECHN
OLOGY
What is a Geographical Information System intended to
be?
an operational tool for representing reality a visual language
able to link planning and management the virtual
representation of a territorial system with characteristics of:
1. Multi-level approach on uncountable sources
2. Interconnection on the semantics of data
3. Performances developed with multi-perspective visions on
4D
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 G E O S PA T I A L ACTIONS
Real world

Conceptual

model Logical

model Physical

model GIS

This approach allows us to create geographical

knowledge by measuring the world, organizing data
and making analysis or models for phenomena
(environment, social processes, economy,
demography, …) and their relationships.
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 LEVELS
of GIS
complexit
y INFRASTRUCT
U3R
tierE S
Data architectur
Storage e
Analysis 1 2 3
User interface
and
simple
operations Applications
Organization of multi-layer
information Complex analytical
operations (statistical and spatial Database
analysis ) management
system
Sophisticated
modeling integrity
techniques
Decision Support Dat securit
Systems (DSS) a
y
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 Note del presentatore
2024-09-30 10:05:46

REPRESENTATION OFREALITY
------------------------------------------
--
In the formal representation
of reality we deal with
specific fundamental
geometrical objects. The
z point, dimensionless; the
y line, one-dimensional (e.g. x
axis); the plane, two-
2D dimensional (e.g. x,y axes);
the objects, three-
dimensional (e.g. x,y,z,
axes). When we move things
along the time line, we play
in a four-dimensional
y context. GIS let users to act
3D 4D inside space – time

x 1 x
applications. A well-known
example of 3D
D t
representation is the Digital
Elevation Model.
A typical system related to
x time and space is a GIS/GPS
application.

DEM
GIS /
3D
GPS
exa
SYSTEMS
mpl
• In the formal representation of reality we deal with specific fundamental
geometrical objects. The point, dimensionless; the line, one-dimensional (e.g. x axis);
the plane, two-dimensional (e.g. x,y axes); the objects, three-dimensional (e.g. x,y,z,
axes). When we move things along the time line, we play in a four-dimensional context.
GIS let users to act inside space – time applications.
• A well-known example of 3D representation is the Digital Elevation Model.
• A typical system related to time and space is a GIS/GPS application.
• We can focus our attention on two basic components of a Geographic Information
System: the archive of data (DB) and the graphic user interface (GUI). The former, the
so-called database, is eventually linked to many others, and contains all the
alfanumerical descriptions and informations of our data. The latter is the environment
inside which it’s possible to analyse things, the stack of informative layers. Each layer
is an element, and it’s possible to overlap different layers on the same geographic
extent, that is, the same part of a specific representation of the planet.
• It’s possible to study and perform queries on data by means of the attribute table
 GIS STRUCTURE
OVERLAPPING
LAYERS
exampl ID NAME CODE TYPE

ATTRIBUTE
TABLE

DB
GUI
AN AUGMENTED REALITY REPRES
ENTATION
CASTEL VOLTURNO, Campania,
Italy Spatial evolutions during the
XXth century

MULTITIME

MULTI +
TIME
MULTI LEVEL =

ESRI TUTORIALS
INCREASED INCREASED
IMAGE CAPABILITIES REALITY
MULTILEVE
L
• For geographically located object on the planet, an user can investigate
multiple aspects at the same time: you can read values from multiple
overlapped sources, you can perform spatial or textual queries, you
can move in space-time dimensions. So GIS users travel and move in an
augmented reality and can deal with elements from very different sources
(e.g. cadastre, stats, environmental agencies, local municipalities, historical
archives, maps, photo, virtual reconstructions, imagery) at the same time.
• So, in the representation of the world, we can overmap informations in order
to obtain a multivel comprehension of different characteristics, and we can
also analyse historical data or different maps on the same territory along
one century, looking for changes. The presence of these capabilities leads
to multilevel and multitime platforms able to operate in an increased
reality .
• GIS can change from a simple desktop installation, to centralized intranet solutions, to
real Spatial Data Infrastructures (SDI).
• A SDI can be defined as an umbrella of policies, standards, terminology and procedures
under which organizations and technologies interact to foster more efficient use,
management and production of geospatial data: a solid production/editing
environment, accessed by high level users; a publication/analysis environment, for
the broader community.
• The core elements are data: the kind of information that's stored and analyzed
determine the contents of maps and images.
• The geographic resolution can be: very detailed (e.g. information about the locations of
all buildings in a city, information about individual trees in a forest); very coarse
(e.g. climate of a large region, population density of an entire country).
• Data can be static (e.g. coordinates of fixed features) or dynamic (e.g. real-time
position of a fleet). Database are very voluminous, and always growing.
GIS DATA MODEL
S: VECTORS
Points Polygons (x1,y1
(x1,y1) … xn,yn closed)

Lines (x1,y1 …
xn,yn)

describe
objects in Descriptions/measures/
a non- attributes are stored in
continuos in Buildings
TABLES
Roads
way Boundaries
…
 RELATIO DATABASE
NAL FORAPPLIC
GIS ATIONS
efficiency in terms of
Relational DB
security, access and
A database performances
that is perceived
by SQL
the user as a Structured Query
collection of two ID NAME
Language
VALUE
dimensional Attribut
tables es
Rows = RECORDS stored
Columns = ATTRIBUTES
in
• The geographic database can be defined as an archive of territorial entities with
their relationships, structured into organized files by a system which ensures the
efficient management and access by many applications and users. The model
generally applied is that of a relational database: that is “a method for structuring
data in the form of sets of records or tuples so that relations between different
entities and attributes can be used for data access and transformation.” (Burroughs,
1986) or “A database structure commonly used in GIS in which data is stored
based on 2 dimensional tables where multiple relationships between data elements
can be defined and established in an ad-hoc manner.”(Croswell, 1991). The relational
database main concepts are that: it represents the basis for the relational database
management system (RDBMS); the relational model contains a collection of objects or
relations, a set of operations to act on the relations, rules for data integrity and
consistency.
• In a relational database any field can be used as a key for a research or a report,
data are stored in two-dimensional tables, each of which is a file; each row is a
record and each column an attribute; searches can be performed on each table using
VECTOR DA TA ANALYSES
AND MODELS

Types
ID_Types Description Role
AB Town / agglomeration of buildings Passive
AP Army/Police Active
AS Airports and stations Active
CP Civil Protection Active
FM Firemen Active
HS Hospital / Clinic / First aid station Active
PA Pubblic Amministration Active
territori
SB School building Passive al
WP Workplace Passive
databas
e
 Weighted
relevance for Vector
education
data
analyses
Weighted relevance for
for
environmental scenarios
EXAMPLE:
Weighte
Weighted issues d
relevance indexes
From RED to can
GREEN
be applied
From high to
low
Weighted to improve
relevance studies
for and
economic the hierarchy
issues of
interventions
for different
 Note del presentatore
2024-09-30 10:05:49
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GIS DATA MODELS: RASTER

S
assigne
d
size
Cell or
Pixel
Int RGB code
/float
value
751.7 210 extent
coordinat
es
• The raster data model uses an array of cells, or pixels, to represent real-world space, and
then encodes the grid cells based on objects in the cell. Cells can hold any attribute
values based on different encoding schemes. Raster data are usually stored as an array
of grid values, with metadata held in a file header. Typical metadata includes geographic
coordinate of the upper-left corner of the grid, the cell size, and the number of row and
column elements.
• Resolution determines usage of data and what features are able to show.
• Differences between vectorial and raster representation are shown in the figures: a country
with some trees and fields can be thought in a vector way (on the left part of the couple),
or in a raster space (on the right part of the couple).
• It is important to understand which is the smallest entity that can be represented:
thinking to an on/off situation, a pixel is switched on to represent a part of an object
further to a specific rule. For example, you can assume that a pixel is switched off if the
vector element covers less than the 30% of its area. The smallest representable entity
changes in consequence of these choices.
 Note del presentatore
2024-09-30 10:05:50
------------------------------------------

Two Ways
--
Differences between
vectorial and raster
representation are shown in

to the figures: a country with

some trees and fields can
be thought in a vector way

represent (on the left part of the

couple), or in a raster space
(on the right part of the

reality couple). It’s important to

understand which is the
smallest entity that can be
represented: thinking to an
raster data on/off situation, a pixel is
switched on to represent a
part of an object further to a
specific rule. For example,
you can assume that a pixel
is switched off if the vector
element covers less than the
30% of its area. The smallest
representable entity changes
in consequence of these
choices.
vector data

smallest representable
entity ??
• A simplified version of the world is represented by means of two different kinds of objects. When we
model the boundaries of spatial objects we use vector data, when we model the space that contains
things and measures we use raster data. In vector data, objects are represented as points, lines and
polygons, in raster data space is represented with a matrix. Different details for data depend on
scale: is a city a point or a polygon? Expected use determines the selection of data from an entire set.
Both data models need metadata to be explained: metadata are similar to an identity card for the
geographical object: you can read detailed description of your data and you can decide if you should use
it or not.
• Vector data model describes the boundaries of real-world objects using 2D geometric types: geographic
entities encoded using the vector data model are called features. Features are vector objects of
different types: point, line or polygon. We can distinguish between Simple Features and Topologic
features: in the former there is no stored relationship between any objects; in the latter features are
structured using topologic rules. Topology is the science and mathematics of encoding shape and
spatial relationships (e.g. A is near to B). Point is an entity defined by the spatial coordinates x,y,(z) and
one or more attributes; line is composed by arcs and points with x,y,(z) coordinates, start and end point
are called vertexes, others are called nodes; polygon is composed by arcs and points with x,y,(z)
coordinates, with vertexes for start and end point coincident.
• Information are stored in relational archives linked to vector data and you can: enter new data into
existing files, extract data from existing files, delete data from existing files, create new files.
 S PA T I A L ANAL
YSIS AND
Overlapping O V E R L AY Response is different
MAPS
polygons A and B: in consequence of
their intersection boolean expressions
divides space in
areas with 2
different
3 4 B
properties
A.OR.B 1 A
“union” Overlay operations with vector features consists in
A.AND.B literally overlaying maps and searching for overlapping
“intersection” areas. A and B overlap, the operation creates a new
polygon 3 which is the intersection, or overlap, of A
and B. Attributes of A and B do appear in 3. Main
overlay types are: clip, intersection, union.
 S PA T I A L ANALYS
C IL S
IP AND MAPS
You can use, like a cookie
cutter, a specific layer or
a specific geometric
object to cut another
layer.

Two examples are shown,

using an irregular
geographic form and a
regular geometric entity.
 S PA T I A L ANALYSIS
AND MAPS
Buffer

around points, lines, polygons

In spatial analysis, it ispossible to execute around entities a specific function
called “buffer” Buffers are polygon shapes that surround a feature by an uniform
distance. The radius of the study can be defined by users or assigned by values of
an attribute. Buffers don’t share the attributes of the feature that they surround.
You have to use spatial joins to add the attributes. You can overlay buffers to
features and perform investigations about the
distance of buildings from some hazardous plant, for
examples, or you can determine whichareas are along roads,
 Note del presentatore
2024-09-30 10:05:51

S PA T I A L A N A L Y S I S AN
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--

D
Network analysis M A P S
A network is a set of arcs
linear interconnected nodes
elements.

Typical network layers: 3 main

roads, railways, types
hydrography, forecasting of network
loads
technological entities
routes optimization
(gas, water, electricity,
resources allocation
telecommunications).

The fundamental objects

of a network are: arcs,
the linear parts, and
 Note del presentatore
2024-09-30 10:05:51
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S PA T I A L A N A L Y S I S --
. AN
D MAPS
Hydraulic risk estimation: flow
prediction in the
hydrographic network

Branches ARCS
Station Network analysis:
s example
Junction NODE
s S
Bridge
s
A typical example of network analysis is hydraulic
risk estimation: you can divide the drainage
network in arcs and nodes, branches and punctual
elements of the system
 Note del presentatore

S PA T I A L ANALYS
2024-09-30 10:05:52
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--

IS
Allocation AND MAPS
function
Network analysis: example
Example:School

Which services?
• bus stop
• roads
• pupils

How long does it take

to go?

A resource allocation function is used to determine specific influence zones:

you can define them by means of different parameters, like distance, time,
the number of users, and so on.
COMPARISON OF D A T AM O D E L S

3
0
 HISTORY
GIS
• Ancient maps to trace the discovery of the world
• Aviation and discovery of the flight
• Discovery of photographic technologies and modern aerial
photos
• Alan Turing and development of IT
• Space missions
• Internet
• GPS technology
Photograph courtesy NASA
• Mobile devices Johnson Space Center - This
famous "Blue Marble"
• Videogames represents the first
photograph in which Earth is
• Radar, Lidar, …advanced techs in full view.
The picture was taken on
• …citizen as sensors, IoT, holograms …. December 7, 1972, as the
Apollo 17 crew left Earth’s 3
orbit for the moon. 1