Metal Working

Processes
(Casting and Forging)
 Group 3
Reporters:
Fain, Rhestmon C.
Guro, Jeopordnil M.
Sarzona, Reyneboy
Reyes, Charls Aron B.
Samar, Eugene O.
Soguilon, Mark Josh M.
Casting
Casting
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured
into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then
allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is
ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials
are usually metals or various time setting materials that cure after mixing two
or more components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay
. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be
otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. Heavy
equipment like machine tool beds, ships' propellers, etc. can be cast easily in
the required size, rather than fabricating by joining several small pieces.
Casting is a 7,000-year-old process. The oldest surviving casting is a copper
frog from 3200 BC.
 Types of

Casting
Types of

Casting
SAND CASTING
Sand casting typically relies on silica-based materials, such as synthetic or naturally-bonded
sand. Casting sand generally consists of finely ground, spherical grains that can be tightly packed
together into a smooth molding surface. The casting is designed to reduce the potential for tearing,
cracking, or other flaws by allowing a moderate degree of flexibility and shrinkage during the cooling
phase of the process. The sand can also be strengthened with the addition of clay, which helps the
particles bond more closely. Automotive products such as engine blocks are manufactured through
sand casting.
Sand casting involves several steps, including patternmaking, molding, melting and pouring, and
cleaning. The pattern is the form around which the sand is packed, usually in two parts, the cope and
the drag. After the sand is compacted enough to replicate the pattern, the cope is removed and the
pattern extracted. Then, any additional inserts called core boxes are installed and the cope is replaced.
After the metal has been poured and solidified, the casting is removed, trimmed of the risers and gates
that were used in the pouring process, and cleaned of any adhered sand and scale.
 Types of

Casting
BENEFITS OF SAND CASTING

Sand casting's main advantages as a casting process include:

• Relatively inexpensive production costs, especially in low-volume
runs.
• The ability to fabricate large components.
• A capacity for casting both ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
• A low cost for post-casting tooling.
 Types of

Casting

SAND CASTING
Despite its benefits, sand casting yields a lower degree of accuracy than
do alternate methods and it can be difficult to sand cast components with a
predetermined size and weight specifications. Furthermore, this process has a
tendency to yield products with a comparatively rough surface finish.
 Types of

Casting
 Types of

Casting
 Types of

Casting
INVESTMENT CASTING
Investment, or lost-wax, casting uses a disposable wax pattern for each cast part. The wax is
injected directly into a mold, removed, then coated with refractory material and a binding agent,
usually in several stages to build up a thick shell. Multiple patterns are assembled onto common
sprues. Once the shells have hardened the patterns are inverted and heated in ovens to remove the
wax. Molten metal is then poured into the remaining shells where it hardens into the shape of the
wax patterns. The refractory shell is broken away to reveal the completed casting. Investment casting
is often used to manufacture parts for the automotive, power generation, and aerospace industries,
such as turbine blades.
 Types of

Casting

INVESTMENT CASTING

Some of the central advantages and disadvantages of investment casting include:

• A high degree of accuracy and precise dimensional results.
• The ability to create thin-walled parts with complex geometries.
• The capacity for casting both ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
• Relatively high-quality surface finish and detail in final components
 Types of

Casting
INVESTMENT CASTING
Although it is highly precise, investment casting is usually
more expensive than other comparable casting techniques and is
typically only cost-efficient when sand or plaster castings cannot be
used. However, the expense can sometimes be compensated for with
reduced machining and tooling costs due to investment castings’
quality surface results.
 Types of

Casting
 Types of

Casting
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Casting
Plaster Casting
Plaster casting is similar to the sand casting process, using a mixture of
gypsum, strengthening compound, and water in place of the sand. The
plaster pattern is typically coated with an anti-adhesive compound to
prevent it from becoming stuck against the mold, and the plaster is capable
of filling in any gaps around the mold. Once the plaster material has been
used to cast the part, it usually cracks or forms defects, requiring it to be
replaced with fresh material.
 Types of

Casting
Plaster Casting
The advantages offered by plaster casting include:
• A very smooth surface finish.
• The ability to cast complex shapes with thin walls.
• The capacity for forming large parts with less expense than other
processes, such as investment casting.
• A higher degree of dimensional accuracy than that of sand casting.
 Types of

Casting

Plaster Casting
This process tends to be more expensive than most sand casting
operations and may require frequent replacements of the plaster molding
material. It is usually more effective and cost-efficient when the quality of
the surface finish is an important requirement. Its application is generally
limited to casting aluminum and copper-based alloys.
 Types of

Casting

Plaster Casting
This process tends to be more expensive than most sand casting
operations and may require frequent replacements of the plaster molding
material. It is usually more effective and cost-efficient when the quality of
the surface finish is an important requirement. Its application is generally
limited to casting aluminum and copper-based alloys.
 Types of

Casting
 Types of

Casting
Advantages Disadvantages
The process tends to be more expensive
Smooth surface finish
than most casting operations

Greater dimensional accuracy than sand Limited applications to aluminum and

casting copper-based alloys

The ability to cast complex shapes with May require frequent replacements of
thin walls the plaster molding material
Not suitable for high melting materials
Longer cooling times, effecting
production rates

Unstable material as compared to sand,

which can affect the complete process
 Types of

Casting
 Types of

Casting
DIE CASTING (METAL CASTING PROCESS)
Die casting is a method of molding materials under high pressure and
usually involves non-ferrous metals and alloys, such as zinc, tin, copper, and
aluminum. The reusable mold is coated with a lubricant to help regulate the
die’s temperature and to assist with component ejection. Molten metal is
then injected into the die under high pressure, which remains continuous
until the workpiece solidifies. This pressurized insertion is rapid, preventing
any segment of the material from hardening before being cast.
 Types of

Casting
DIE CASTING (METAL CASTING PROCESS)

After the process is completed, the component is taken out of the die and any
scrap material is removed. A few of the major advantages provided by die casting
include:
• Close size and shape tolerances.
• High component dimensional consistency and uniform design.
• A reduced need for post-casting machining.
 Types of

Casting
DIE CASTING (METAL CASTING PROCESS)

Despite its advantages, die casting as a metal casting process has

relatively high tool costs, making it more cost-efficient in high-volume
product runs. It can also be difficult to ensure the mechanical properties
of a die-cast component, meaning these products usually do not function
as structural parts. As the molds are typically two-piece, die casting is
limited to products that can be removed from the mold without
destroying the mold, as is done in other casting processes.
 Types of

Casting
 Types of

Casting
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Casting
Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal casting is used to produce long, cylindrical parts such as cast iron pipe by
relying on the g-forces developed in a spinning mold. Molten metal introduced into the
mold is flung against the interior surface of the mold, producing a casting that can be
free of voids. Originally invented as the de Lavaud process using water-cooled molds, the
method is applied to symmetrical parts such as soil pipe and large gun barrels and has
the advantage of producing parts using a minimal number of risers. For asymmetric parts
that cannot be spun around their own axes, a variant of centrifugal casting, called
pressure casting, arranges several parts around a common sprue and spins the molds
around this axis. A similar idea is applied to the casting of very large gear rings, etc.
Depending on the material being cast, metal or sand molds may be used.
 Types of

Casting
Advantages Disadvantages
Improved process yields and reduced Centrifugal casting requires high
wastage investments

Casting has high density and almost no

Requirement of skilled labor
defects

The process is convenient to

manufacture barrel and sleeve Specific shapes production
composite metal castings

No requirement of gates and risers

 Types of

Casting
 STEPS IN

Casting
 Types of

Casting
Permanent Mold Casting
Permanent mold casting shares similarities with die casting and centrifugal
casting, notably the use of reusable molds. These can be made of steel, graphite, etc.
and are generally used to cast materials such as lead, zinc, aluminum and magnesium
alloys, certain bronzes, and cast iron. It is a low-pressure process with pouring usually
done by hand using multiple molds on a turntable. As the molds rotate through the
various stations they are successively coated, closed, filled, opened, and emptied. One
such method is known as slush casting, where the mold is filled but emptied before the
metal fully hardens. Molten metal is dumped from the casting to produce a hollow, cast
shell. A similar idea is used in the molding of hollow chocolate products such as Easter
bunnies. The use of metal molds induces faster heat transfer through the mold, allowing
the shell to harden while the core remains liquid.
 Types of

Casting
Lost-Foam Casting
Lost-foam casting method is similar to investment casting with the
difference that it uses foam for the pattern instead of wax. Once the
pattern is formed, coating with a refractory ceramic takes place by
dipping, coating, spraying, or brushing. Then, the molten metal is
poured into the mold to form the desired product.
This technique can be used for various materials like alloy steel, carbon
steel, alloy cast iron, ferrous alloy, etc. In particular, products like pump
housing, fire hydrants, valves, and fittings are made through the lost-
foam casting process.
Lost foam casting possesses numerous advantages which include high
precision and high accuracy production. However, there are a few
limitations of this process that makes it unsuitable for low-volume
applications
 Types of

Casting
 Types of

Casting

Advantages Disadvantages
High pattern costs for low volume
High precision casting
production

Low strength causes distortion or damage

Allows flexible design
of the pattern

Many production processes and longer

Clean production
delivery time
Economic for high volume production
 Types of

Casting
Vacuum Casting
Vacuum casting, as the name suggests, is the type of casting where
production occurs under vacuum pressure of 100 bar or less to exhaust
gas from the mold cavity. In this process, molten metal is poured into
the mold cavity inside a vacuum chamber in order to eliminate bubbles
and air pockets. The vacuum evacuation of the die cavity reduces the
entrapment of gases within the cavity during the metal injection
process. Finally, the metal is cured in a heating chamber and removed
from the mold.
The vacuum die casting process is popular in various industries
including automobiles, aerospace, electronics, marine,
telecommunication, etc. As a result, some components fabricated by
this manufacturing process include structural chassis components and
automotive body parts.
 Types of

Casting
Advantages Disadvantages

Reduce porosity, improve mechanical properties

High tooling cost
and surface quality of die casting

Production of thin walled products The mold used in the process has a short life

Welding and heat treatment of products is

Potential hollowness issues
possible
Suitable for low volume production
No requirement for expensive hard tool
finishing

Diminishes air pockets and bubbles at early

stages
 Types of

Casting
 Types of

Casting
 Types of

Casting
SQUEEZE CASTING
Liquid forging or squeeze casting is a hybrid metal forming
process that merges permanent mold casting and die forging in a
single step. In this process, a specific amount of molten metal alloy is
injected into a die, and pressure is applied to shape it. Then, the metal
part is heated over melting temperature and extracted from the die.
Particularly, squeezing die casting is a potential casting process for safety-critical parts in
automotive systems. For example, space frame joints, aluminum front steering knuckles,
chassis frames, brackets, or nodes.
This type of metal casting combines the benefits of casting and forging processes. For
example, the high pressure applied during solidification helps prevent shrinkage and
porosities. However, due to specific tooling requirements, it is not as popular as other
casting processes for mass production.
 Types of

Casting
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Casting
Advantages Disadvantages
Eliminates internal defects like pores,
Less flexibility in part geometry
shrinkage holes and shrinkage porosity
Low surface roughness Lower productivity
It can prevent casting cracks High machining requirements
Requires accurate controlling, slowing
High strength components
down the overall process
No wastage of material
 Types of

Casting
 Types of

Casting
Continuous Casting

As the name suggests, it allows consistent mass production of metal

profiles with a constant cross-section. This type of casting is popular in
the production of steel bars. Also, the vertical cast creates semi-
continuous casting like billets, ingots, bars, etc.
In this process, molten metal is poured at a calculated rate in a water-
cooled, open-ended mold that allows a surface of solid metal to form on
the liquid metal in the center. Metal solidification, thus, happens from
the outside in. After this process finishes, strands of metal can be
continuously extracted from the mold. Predetermined lengths of
products can be cut off by mechanical shears or traveling oxyacetylene
torches.
Generally, the products created using continuous casting are
homogeneous, consistent, and dense.
 Types of

Casting

Advantages Disadvantages

Diverse size range of casting products Requirement of continuous cooling of

varying from a few millimeters thick strip the molds, otherwise, center-line
to larger billets and slabs shrinkage develops

Lower costs due to continuous Casting of only simple shapes with a

production constant cross-section

Requires large ground space and high

Lower material wastage
initial investment
 Types of

Casting
 Types of

Casting
 Types of

Casting
SHELL MOLDING
Shell molding is an expendable mold casting process. It is
similar to the sand casting process except for that the hardened
shell of sand forms the mold cavity instead of a flask of sand.
The sand used is finer than that utilized in sand casting and it is
mixed with a resin so that it can be heat treated and hardened
into the shell around the pattern.Shell molding makes industrial
products, for example, gearbox housing, connecting rod, small-
size boats, truck hoods, cylindrical heads, camshafts, valve
bodies, etc.
The casting products possess a good surface finish and
dimensional accuracy. However, the limitation of this kind of
casting includes the size and weight limitation of the parts.
 Types of

Casting

Advantages Disadvantages
Casting of thin and complex parts Not suitable for small scale production
Semi-skilled labor Limitations on size and weight
Special metal pattern required which
No further machining required
makes it expensive for large casting
Accounts for surface defects
 Types of

Casting
 Types of

Casting
ADDITIONAL INFO’s ABOUT

Casting
Centrifugal casting (industrial) – Casting technique that is typically used to cast thin-walled cylinders
Core plug – Closure for sand casting core holes on water-cooled internal combustion engine blocks
Die casting – Metal casting process
Glass casting – Process in which glass objects are cast by directing molten glass into a mould where
it solidifies
Investment casting – Industrial process based on lost-wax casting
Lost-foam casting – Type of evaporative-pattern casting process
Lost-wax casting – Process by which a duplicate metal sculpture is cast from an original sculpture
Molding (process) – Shaping a liquid or plastic material by making it conform to a more rigid mold
Plaster casting (process) - Sand casting process with use of plaster to fill gaps
Permanent mold casting – Metal casting process that employs reusable molds
Rapid casting – Use of 3D printing to create disposable patterns
Sand casting – Metal casting process using sand as the mold material
Slip casting – Technique for forming pottery
Squeeze casting – Casting method that applies very high pressure to the cooling metal
 STEPS IN

Casting
 STEPS IN

Casting
Basic Steps of Different Casting Production
Mostly, casting processes follow some basic steps like pattern making, mold making, selection and pouring of metal
alloys and finally, finishing of the casted part.
• Pattern making
To create a pattern, it is important to determine the shape of the mold. For this, the materials used are wax, sand,
plastic or even wood.
• Mold making
Following on, there is a requirement to create different types of molds for casting. Single-use mold can be made out of
sand, plaster, or ceramic shell. Each of them has a different production method. Also, patterns made from foam or wax
are burnt in a kiln.
• Choose metal alloys
Metal castings are produced from ferrous or non-ferrous alloys. Alloys are a chemical mixture of elements with
mechanical properties which are best for the final cast applications. Where, ferrous alloys include steel, malleable iron
and gray iron. While non-ferrous metals include aluminum alloys, bronze and copper.
 STEPS IN

Casting

• Melt and pour the alloy

After the selection of the metal alloys, the next step is the pouring of metal into the mold. The process involves placing a
solid metal over a crucible and heating it with an open flame or inside the furnace until it melts. For small casting,
pouring the molten metal directly from the crucible is possible. However, larger castings may require the transferring of
metal into a larger ladle before pouring into the mold.
• Finishing
After solidification, the casting product is removed and metal surface finishing is done on it. Furthermore, the process of
finishing can include the removal of excess material by scrubbing or machining for larger waste material.
 STEPS IN

Casting
Forging
 Forging

Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces. The
blows are delivered with a hammer (often a power hammer) or a die. Forging is often classified according
to the temperature at which it is performed: cold forging (a type of cold working), warm forging, or hot
forging (a type of hot working). For the latter two, the metal is heated, usually in a forge. Forged parts can
range in weight from less than a kilogram to hundreds of metric tons. Forging has been done by smiths for
millennia; the traditional products were kitchenware, hardware, hand tools, edged weapons, cymbals,
and jewellery.
Since the Industrial Revolution, forged parts are widely used in mechanisms and machines wherever a
component requires high strength; such forgings usually require further processing (such as machining) to
achieve a finished part. Today, forging is a major worldwide industry.
Forging

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined part. As
the metal is shaped during the forging process, its internal grain texture deforms to follow the
general shape of the part. As a result, the texture variation is continuous throughout the part, giving
rise to a piece with improved strength characteristics. Additionally, forgings can achieve a lower
total cost than casting or fabrication. Considering all the costs that are incurred in a product's life
cycle from procurement to lead time to rework, and factoring in the costs of scrap, and downtime
and other quality considerations, the long-term benefits of forgings can outweigh the short-term
cost savings that castings or fabrications might offer.
Forging

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Some metals may be forged cold, but iron and steel are almost always hot forged. Hot
forging prevents the work hardening that would result from cold forming, which would increase the
difficulty of performing secondary machining operations on the piece. Also, while work hardening
may be desirable in some circumstances, other methods of hardening the piece, such as
heat treating, are generally more economical and more controllable. Alloys that are amenable to
precipitation hardening, such as most aluminium alloys and titanium, can be hot forged, followed by
hardening.
Forging

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Production forging involves significant capital expenditure for machinery, tooling, facilities and
personnel. In the case of hot forging, a high-temperature furnace (sometimes referred to as the forge) is
required to heat ingots or billets. Owing to the size of the massive forging hammers and presses and the parts
they can produce, as well as the dangers inherent in working with hot metal, a special building is frequently
required to house the operation. In the case of drop forging operations, provisions must be made to absorb the
shock and vibration generated by the hammer. Most forging operations use metal-forming dies, which must be
precisely machined and carefully heat-treated to correctly shape the workpiece, as well as to withstand the
tremendous forces involved.
Forging

There are many different kinds of forging processes available; however, they can be
grouped into three main classes:
1. Drawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases
2. Upset: length decreases, cross-section increases
3. Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces multidirectional flow

• Common forging processes include: roll forging, swaging, cogging, open-die

forging, impression-die forging (closed die forging), press forging, cold forging,
automatic hot forging and upsetting.
Forging
TEMPERATURE
All of the following forging processes can be performed at various temperatures; however, they are
generally classified by whether the metal temperature is above or below the recrystallization temperature. If
the temperature is above the material's recrystallization temperature it is deemed hot forging; if the
temperature is below the material's recrystallization temperature but above 30% of the recrystallization
temperature (on an absolute scale) it is deemed warm forging; if below 30% of the recrystallization
temperature (usually room temperature) then it is deemed cold forging. The main advantage of hot forging is
that it can be done more quickly and precisely, and as the metal is deformed work hardening effects are
negated by the recrystallization process. Cold forging typically results in work hardening of the piece.
Forging
DROP FORGING
Drop forging is a forging process where a hammer is raised and then
"dropped" into the workpiece to deform it according to the shape of the die. There
are two types of drop forging: open-die drop forging and impression-die (or closed-
die) drop forging. As the names imply, the difference is in the shape of the die, with
the former not fully enclosing the workpiece, while the latter does.
Forging
Forging
OPEN-DIE FORGING
Open-die forging is also known as smith forging. In open-die forging, a hammer strikes and deforms
the workpiece, which is placed on a stationary anvil. Open-die forging gets its name from the fact that the dies
(the surfaces that are in contact with the workpiece) do not enclose the workpiece, allowing it to flow except
where contacted by the dies. The operator therefore needs to orient and position the workpiece to get the
desired shape. The dies are usually flat in shape, but some have a specially shaped surface for specialized
operations. For example, a die may have a round, concave, or convex surface or be a tool to form holes or be a
cut-off tool. Open-die forgings can be worked into shapes which include discs, hubs, blocks, shafts (including
step shafts or with flanges), sleeves, cylinders, flats, hexes, rounds, plate, and some custom shapes. Open-die
forging lends itself to short runs and is appropriate for art smithing and custom work. In some cases, open-die
forging may be employed to rough-shape ingots to prepare them for subsequent operations. Open-die forging
may also orient the grain to increase strength in the required direction
Forging

Advantages of open-die forging

• Reduced chance of voids
• Better fatigue resistance
• Improved microstructure
• Continuous grain flow
• Finer grain size
• Greater strength
• Better response to thermal treatment
• Improvement of internal quality
• Greater reliability of mechanical properties, ductility and impact resistance
Forging
"Cogging" is the successive deformation of a bar along its length using an open-die
drop forge. It is commonly used to work a piece of raw material to the proper
thickness. Once the proper thickness is achieved the proper width is achieved via
"edging"."Edging" is the process of concentrating material using a concave shaped
open-die. The process is called "edging" because it is usually carried out on the
ends of the workpiece. "Fullering" is a similar process that thins out sections of the
forging using a convex shaped die. These processes prepare the workpieces for
further forging processes.
Forging

EDGING FULLERING
Forging
Forging
Impression-die forging
Impression-die forging is also called "closed-die forging". In impression-die forging, the metal is placed in a
die resembling a mold, which is attached to an anvil. Usually, the hammer die is shaped as well. The hammer is then
dropped on the workpiece, causing the metal to flow and fill the die cavities. The hammer is generally in contact
with the workpiece on the scale of milliseconds. Depending on the size and complexity of the part, the hammer may
be dropped multiple times in quick succession. Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavities, forming what is
referred to as "flash". The flash cools more rapidly than the rest of the material; this cool metal is stronger than the
metal in the die, so it helps prevent more flash from forming. This also forces the metal to completely fill the die
cavity. After forging, the flash is removed.
In commercial impression-die forging, the workpiece is usually moved through a series of cavities in a die
to get from an ingot to the final form. The first impression is used to distribute the metal into the rough shape in
accordance to the needs of later cavities; this impression is called an "edging", "fullering", or "bending" impression.
The following cavities are called "blocking" cavities, in which the piece is working into a shape that more closely
resembles the final product. These stages usually impart the workpiece with generous bends and large fillets. The
final shape is forged in a "final" or "finisher" impression cavity. If there is only a short run of parts to be done, then it
may be more economical for the die to lack a final impression cavity and instead machine the final features.
Forging
Impression-die forging has been improved in recent years through increased automation which includes induction
heating, mechanical feeding, positioning and manipulation, and the direct heat treatment of parts after forging. One
variation of impression-die forging is called "flashless forging", or "true closed-die forging". In this type of forging,
the die cavities are completely closed, which keeps the workpiece from forming flash. The major advantage to this
process is that less metal is lost to flash. Flash can account for 20 to 45% of the starting material. The disadvantages
of this process include additional cost due to a more complex die design and the need for better lubrication and
workpiece placement.
There are other variations of part formation that integrate impression-die forging. One method incorporates casting
a forging preform from liquid metal. The casting is removed after it has solidified, but while still hot. It is then
finished in a single cavity die. The flash is trimmed, then the part is quench hardened. Another variation follows the
same process as outlined above, except the preform is produced by the spraying deposition of metal droplets into
shaped collectors (similar to the Osprey process).
Closed-die forging has a high initial cost due to the creation of dies and required design work to make working die
cavities. However, it has low recurring costs for each part, thus forgings become more economical with greater
production volume. This is one of the major reasons closed-die forgings are often used in the automotive and tool
industries. Another reason forgings are common in these industrial sectors is that forgings generally have about a 20
percent higher strength-to-weight ratio compared to cast or machined parts of the same material.
Forging
Design of impression-die forgings and tooling
Forging dies are usually made of high-alloy or tool steel. Dies must be impact- and wear-resistant, maintain strength
at high temperatures, and have the ability to withstand cycles of rapid heating and cooling. In order to produce a
better, more economical die the following standards are maintained:

• The dies part along a single, flat plane whenever possible. If not, the parting plane follows the contour of the
part.
• The parting surface is a plane through the center of the forging and not near an upper or lower edge.
• Adequate draft is provided; usually at least 3° for aluminium and 5° to 7° for steel.
• Generous fillets and radii are used.
• Ribs are low and wide.
• The various sections are balanced to avoid extreme difference in metal flow.
• Full advantage is taken of fiber flow lines.
• Dimensional tolerances are not closer than necessary.
Forging

Barrelling occurs when, due to friction between the work piece and the die or punch, the work piece bulges at its
centre in such a way as to resemble a barrel. This leads to the central part of the work piece to come in contact with
the sides of the die sooner than if there were no friction present, creating a much greater increase in the pressure
required for the punch to finish the forging.
The dimensional tolerances of a steel part produced using the impression-die forging method are outlined in the table
below. The dimensions across the parting plane are affected by the closure of the dies, and are therefore dependent
on die wear and the thickness of the final flash. Dimensions that are completely contained within a single die segment
or half can be maintained at a significantly greater level of accuracy.
Forging
Forging
Press forging
Press forging works by slowly applying a continuous pressure or force, which differs from the near-
instantaneous impact of drop-hammer forging. The amount of time the dies are in contact with the workpiece is
measured in seconds (as compared to the milliseconds of drop-hammer forges). The press forging operation can be
done either cold or hot.
The main advantage of press forging, as compared to drop-hammer forging, is its ability to deform the
complete workpiece. Drop-hammer forging usually only deforms the surfaces of the work piece in contact with the
hammer and anvil; the interior of the workpiece will stay relatively undeformed. Another advantage to the process
includes the knowledge of the new part's strain rate. By controlling the compression rate of the press forging
operation, the internal strain can be controlled.
There are a few disadvantages to this process, most stemming from the workpiece being in contact with
the dies for such an extended period of time. The operation is a time-consuming process due to the amount and
length of steps. The workpiece will cool faster because the dies are in contact with workpiece; the dies facilitate
drastically more heat transfer than the surrounding atmosphere. As the workpiece cools it becomes stronger and
less ductile, which may induce cracking if deformation continues. Therefore, heated dies are usually used to reduce
heat loss, promote surface flow, and enable the production of finer details and closer tolerances. The workpiece may
also need to be reheated.
Forging

When done in high productivity, press forging is more economical than hammer forging. The operation also creates
closer tolerances. In hammer forging a lot of the work is absorbed by the machinery; when in press forging, the
greater percentage of work is used in the work piece. Another advantage is that the operation can be used to create
any size part because there is no limit to the size of the press forging machine. New press forging techniques have
been able to create a higher degree of mechanical and orientation integrity. By the constraint of oxidation to the
outer layers of the part, reduced levels of microcracking occur in the finished part.
Press forging can be used to perform all types of forging, including open-die and impression-die forging. Impression-
die press forging usually requires less draft than drop forging and has better dimensional accuracy. Also, press forgings
can often be done in one closing of the dies, allowing for easy automation.
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UPSET FORGING
Upset forging increases the diameter of the workpiece by compressing its length. Based on number of
pieces produced, this is the most widely used forging process. A few examples of common parts produced using the
upset forging process are engine valves, couplings, bolts, screws, and other fasteners.
Upset forging is usually done in special high-speed machines called crank presses. The machines are usually set up to
work in the horizontal plane, to facilitate the quick exchange of workpieces from one station to the next, but upsetting
can also be done in a vertical crank press or a hydraulic press. The initial workpiece is usually wire or rod, but some
machines can accept bars up to 25 cm (9.8 in) in diameter and a capacity of over 1000 tons. The standard upsetting
machine employs split dies that contain multiple cavities. The dies open enough to allow the workpiece to move from
one cavity to the next; the dies then close and the heading tool, or ram, then moves longitudinally against the bar,
upsetting it into the cavity. If all of the cavities are utilized on every cycle, then a finished part will be produced with
every cycle, which makes this process advantageous for mass production.
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These rules must be followed when designing parts to be upset forged:

• The length of unsupported metal that can be upset in one blow without injurious buckling should be
limited to three times the diameter of the bar.
• Lengths of stock greater than three times the diameter may be upset successfully, provided that the
diameter of the upset is not more than 1.5 times the diameter of the stock.
• In an upset requiring stock length greater than three times the diameter of the stock, and where the
diameter of the cavity is not more than 1.5 times the diameter of the stock, the length of unsupported
metal beyond the face of the die must not exceed the diameter of the bar.
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Automatic hot forging
The automatic hot forging process involves feeding mill-length steel bars (typically 7 m (23 ft) long) into one end of
the machine at room temperature and hot forged products emerge from the other end. This all occurs rapidly; small
parts can be made at a rate of 180 parts per minute (ppm) and larger can be made at a rate of 90 ppm. The parts can
be solid or hollow, round or symmetrical, up to 6 kg (13 lb), and up to 18 cm (7.1 in) in diameter. The main
advantages to this process are its high output rate and ability to accept low-cost materials. Little labor is required to
operate the machinery.
There is no flash produced so material savings are between 20 and 30% over conventional forging. The final product
is a consistent 1,050 °C (1,920 °F) so air cooling will result in a part that is still easily machinable (the advantage being
the lack of annealing required after forging). Tolerances are usually ±0.3 mm (0.012 in), surfaces are clean, and draft
angles are 0.5 to 1°. Tool life is nearly double that of conventional forging because contact times are on the order of
0.06-second. The downside is that this process is only feasible on smaller symmetric parts and cost; the initial
investment can be over $10 million, so large quantities are required to justify this process
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The process starts by heating the bar to 1,200 to 1,300 °C (2,190 to 2,370 °F) in less than 60
seconds using high-power induction coils. It is then descaled with rollers, sheared into blanks, and
transferred through several successive forming stages, during which it is upset, preformed, final forged,
and pierced (if necessary). This process can also be coupled with high-speed cold-forming operations.
Generally, the cold forming operation will do the finishing stage so that the advantages of cold-working
can be obtained, while maintaining the high speed of automatic hot forging.
Examples of parts made by this process are: wheel hub unit bearings, transmission gears,
tapered roller bearing races, stainless steel coupling flanges, and neck rings for liquid propane (LP) gas
cylinders. Manual transmission gears are an example of automatic hot forging used in conjunction with
cold working.
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Roll forging
Roll forging is a process where round or flat bar stock is reduced in thickness and increased in
length. Roll forging is performed using two cylindrical or semi-cylindrical rolls, each containing one or
more shaped grooves. A heated bar is inserted into the rolls and when it hits a spot the rolls rotate and
the bar is progressively shaped as it is rolled through the machine. The piece is then transferred to the
next set of grooves or turned around and reinserted into the same grooves. This continues until the
desired shape and size is achieved. The advantage of this process is there is no flash and it imparts a
favorable grain structure into the workpiece.
Examples of products produced using this method include axles, tapered levers and leaf springs.
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Net-shape and near-net-shape forging

This process is also known as precision forging. It was developed to minimize cost and
waste associated with post-forging operations. Therefore, the final product from a
precision forging needs little or no final machining. Cost savings are gained from the use
of less material, and thus less scrap, the overall decrease in energy used, and the
reduction or elimination of machining. Precision forging also requires less of a draft, 1°
to 0°. The downside of this process is its cost, therefore it is only implemented if
significant cost reduction can be achieved.
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Cold forging
Near net shape forging is most common when parts are forged without heating the slug,
bar or billet. Aluminum is a common material that can be cold forged depending on final
shape. Lubrication of the parts being formed is critical to increase the life of the mating
dies.

Induction forging

Unlike the above processes, induction forging is based on the type of heating style used. Many of the above
processes can be used in conjunction with this heating method.
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Multidirectional forging
Multidirectional forging is forming of a work piece in a single step in several directions. The
multidirectional forming takes place through constructive measures of the tool. The vertical movement of
the press ram is redirected using wedges which distributes and redirects the force of the forging press in
horizontal directions.

Isothermal forging
Isothermal forging is a process by which the materials and the die are heated to the same
temperature (iso- meaning "equal"). Adiabatic heating is used to assist in the deformation of the material,
meaning the strain rates are highly controlled. This technique is commonly used for forging aluminium,
which has a lower forging temperature than steels. Forging temperatures for aluminum are around 430 °C
(806 °F), while steels and super alloys can be 930 to 1,260 °C (1,710 to 2,300 °F).
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Benefits:
• Near net shapes which lead to lower machining requirements and therefore lower
scrap rates
• Reproducibility of the part
• Due to the lower heat loss smaller machines can be used to make the forging
Disadvantages:
• Higher die material costs to handle temperatures and pressures
• Uniform heating systems are required
• Protective atmospheres or vacuum to reduce oxidation of the dies and material
• Low production rates
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Materials and Application of
FORGING
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Forging of steel
• Depending on the forming temperature steel forging can be divided into:
• Hot forging of steel
• Forging temperatures above the recrystallization temperature between 950–1250 °C
• Good formability
• Low forming forces
• Constant tensile strength of the workpieces
• Warm forging of steel
• Forging temperatures between 750–950 °C
• Less or no scaling at the workpiece surface
• Narrower tolerances achievable than in hot forging
• Limited formability and higher forming forces than for hot forging
• Lower forming forces than in cold forming
• Cold forging of steel
• Forging temperatures at room conditions, self-heating up to 150 °C due to the forming energy
• Narrowest tolerances achievable
• No scaling at workpiece surface
• Increase of strength and decrease of ductility due to strain hardening
• Low formability and high forming forces are necessary
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Forging of aluminium

Aluminium forging is performed at a temperature range between 350–550 °C

Forging temperatures above 550 °C are too close to the solidus temperature of the alloys and lead in
conjunction with varying effective strains to unfavorable workpiece surfaces and potentially to a partial
melting as well as fold formation.
Forging temperatures below 350 °C reduce formability by increasing the yield stress, which can lead to
unfilled dies, cracking at the workpiece surface and increased die forces
Due to the narrow temperature range and high thermal conductivity, aluminium forging can only be
realized in a particular process window. To provide good forming conditions a homogeneous
temperature distribution in the entire workpiece is necessary. Therefore, the control of the tool
temperature has a major influence to the process. For example, by optimizing the preform geometries
the local effective strains can be influenced to reduce local overheating for a more homogeneous
temperature distribution.
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Application of aluminium forged parts

High-strength aluminium alloys have the tensile strength of medium strong steel alloys while providing
significant weight advantages. Therefore, aluminium forged parts are mainly used in aerospace,
automotive industry and many other fields of engineering especially in those fields, where highest safety
standards against failure by abuse, by shock or vibratory stresses are needed. Such parts are for example
pistons, chassis parts, steering components and brake parts. Commonly used alloys are AlSi1MgMn (
EN AW-6082) and AlZnMgCu1,5 (EN AW-7075). About 80% of all aluminium forged parts are made of
AlSi1MgMn. The high-strength alloy AlZnMgCu1,5 is mainly used for aerospace applications.
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Forging of magnesium

Magnesium forging occurs at a temperature range between 290–450 °C

Magnesium alloys are more difficult to forge due to their low plasticity, low sensitivity to strain rates and
narrow forming temperature. Using semi-open die hot forging with a three-slide forging press (TSFP) has
become a newly developed forging method for Mg-Al alloy AZ31, commonly used in forming aircraft
brackets. This forging method has shown to improve tensile properties but lacks uniform grain size. Even
though the application of magnesium alloys increases by 15–20% each year in the aerospace and
automotive industry, forging magnesium alloys with specialized dies is expensive and an unfeasible
method to produce parts for a mass market. Instead, most magnesium alloy parts for industry are
produced by casting methods.
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