Module 4

Generation of High Test Voltages

 Objectives

• Design features of high voltage ac test equipment

• Tuned resonant test set
• Generation of high dc voltages
• High impulse test voltage generation
 Generation of Power Frequency High AC
•Voltages
High Voltage power frequency test transformers are required to produce single phase very high voltages
• Their continuous current ratings are very low, usually ≈ 1A.
• Even 1A is a very high current rating. This is because a HV test transformer has to supply only the
capacitive charging current to the capacitance formed by the dielectric of the test object.
• However, since the voltage rating requirements are high, the test transformers are required to be
produced with very high insulation level. This increases the size of the test sets tremendously.
• Hence, single units of test transformers are produced maximum upto 700 kV.

Fig. 1 A 600 kV, 3.33 A, Oil filled Testing Transformer for continuous operation [Courtesy TüR Dresden, Germany]
Cont…

Fig. 2 An SF6 gas filled 1000 kV, 0.6 A, single unit ac power frequency test transformer, courtesy Himalayal Test Systems, China.
Cascaded Power Frequency Transformer Set
• For the production of higher voltages, a number of identical units are put in cascade to add up their
voltages as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 A two-stage ac Testing Cascade, 1.2 MV (2 x 600 kV), 1.25 A, short-time operation of four hours at an ambient temperature
of 35° C. Transformer tanks are made of sheet aluminum, courtesy TüR Dresden, Germany
Cont…
•Cascading a number of single identical units makes transportation, production and erection simpler.
•The cascading principle is illustrated with the basic scheme shown in Fig. below in
which it can be seen that output of a stage transformer becomes input for the next stage.

Fig. 4 Schematic of three transformers in cascade,(1) Primary windings,(2) Secondary, HV, windings, (3) Tertiary/
excitation windings (4) Core
Cont…
• The HV supply is connected to the primary winding "1" of transformer I, designed for a HV output of V. The other
two transformers too are connected in the same fashion.

• The excitation winding "3" of Transformer I supplies the primary voltage for the second transformer unit II; both
windings are dimensioned for the same low voltage, and the potential gain is fixed to the same value V.

• The HV or secondary windings "2" of both units are connected in series, so that a voltage of 2 V is produced at
the output of 2nd unit. The unit III is added in the same way.

• The tanks or vessels containing the active parts (core and windings) are indicated by dashed lines.

• For a metal tank construction and the HV windings shown in this basic scheme, the core and the tank of each
unit would acquire the HV level of the previous unit as indicated . Only the tank of transformer I is earthed.

• The tanks of transformers II and III are at high potentials, namely V and 2 V above earth, and must therefore
be
suitably insulated, hence raised above the ground on solid post insulators.

• Through HV bushings the leads from the excitation windings "3", as well as the tapings of the HV windings "2",
are brought to the next transformer.

 For voltages higher than about 600 kV , the cascade of such transformers is a big advantage. The weight and the
size of the testing set is sub-divided into single units of smaller size and lower weight. The transportation and
erection of the test set in cascade becomes simpler. However, there is a disadvantage that the primary windings of the
lower stages are more heavily loaded with higher current in such sets.
Cont…
• There are several methods of designing the cascade test sets. In Fig. 5 schematic diagram of another
power frequency test set cascade of 3 x 750 = 2250 kV rating is shown.

• This circuit has a third winding, known as "Balancing Winding''.

• These windings are designed to acquire the intermediate potentials between two stages.

• In this circuit, the transformers of the upper stages have their excitation windings arranged over the
HV windings of the transformers of the lower potential.

Fig. 5 Schematic of an ac 2250 kV test set circuit in

cascade
Cont…

Fig. 6 Photograph of an ac test set of 2250 kV, 3 x 750 kV in cascade, 2250 kVA installed outdoors in open air,
courtesy TüR Dresden, Germany
 Tuned Resonant High-Voltage AC Test Equipment
• Testing of HV equipment having high capacitance, for
example, long length of HV power cables, power
capacitors, GIS etc. may draw excessive capacitive
charging current.

• Necessity for "Tuned series resonant HV power

frequency test equipment" arose in particular by the cable
manufacturing industry when they required to test long
lengths of HV cables drawing large capacitive current on
the HV side.

• The capacitance Ct represents the capacitance of the test

object. A variable reactor is connected on the LV
(primary) winding of the test transformer. If the
inductance of this reactor is tuned to match the
impedance of the capacitive load, the capacitive power
can be completely compensated.
F
i
g
.

S
Cont…
• The equivalent circuit diagram for this is a low damped series resonant circuit. The high output voltage
can be controlled by a variable ac supply, i.e. a voltage regulator transformer (Feed Transformer) if the
circuit was tuned before.

• The Feed Transformer is rated for the nominal current of the inductor and its voltage rating could be
very low.

• It may be seen that it is possible to have series resonance at power frequency. With this condition, the
current in the tests object is very large and is limited only by the resistance of the circuit. The
waveform of the voltage across the test object will be purely sinusoidal.

• The magnitude of the voltage across the capacitance C of the test object will be

where R is the total series resistances of the circuit.

• The factor Xc/R is the Q factor of the circuit and gives the magnitude of the voltage multiplication
across the test object under resonance conditions.
• Therefore, the input voltage required for excitation is reduced by a factor 1/Q, and the output kVA
required is also reduced by a factor 1/Q. the secondary power factor of the circuit is unity.
Cont…
• For high capacitance and ohmic loads (loads with high real power losses), the parallel resonant
circuit shown in Fig is more suitable.
• Both these series and parallel circuits can be made at the same system by changing the
connections of the variable reactor 'L' . Right hand side Fig shows a HV variable reactor which
is tuned automatically to the desired value of the capacitive load.

(a)
Fig. 8 Tuned variable reactor circuits, series and parallel
connected inductor Fig. 9 (a) An(b)
automatic tuned variable reactor and AC resonant test system of
400 kV , (b) A cable drum length under test showing variable reactor at the
back, courtesy Power HV, China
 Resonance Transformer:
Advantages
• Dimensions and weight of such test sets are much smaller.

• 100% compensation of capacitive reactive power is possible. Under this condition, the only power
drawn from the mains is the active power required.

• The magnitudes of the short circuit currents, in case of insulation failure, are minimized.

• The voltage wave shape is improved by attenuation of harmonic components already in the power
supply. A practical figure for the amplification of the fundamental voltage amplitude at resonance is
between 20 and 50 times. Higher harmonic voltages are divided in the series circuit to a decreasing
proportion across the capacitive load. Good wave shape helps accurate HV measurement and it is very
desirable for Schering Bridge measurements.

• The power required from the supply is lower than the kVA in the main test circuit. It represents only
about 5% of the main kVA with a unity power factor.

• The disadvantages are the requirements of additional variable chokes capable of withstanding the full
test voltage and the full current rating.
 Generation of High DC Voltage, Voltage
Multiplier Circuits
• In HV technology direct voltages are mainly used for pure scientific research work and for testing
equipment used in HVDC transmission systems. HVDC test sets are also suitable as mobile test units for
testing the equipment at site after installation since these are very light weight.

• High dc voltages are even more extensively used in physics (accelerators, electron microscopy, etc.),
electromedical equipment (x-rays), industrial applications (precipitation and filtering of exhaust gases in
thermal power stations and cement industry; electrostatic painting and powder coating, etc.), or
communications electronics (TV; broadcasting stations). Very high static voltages, produced by
electrostatic generators, are used in nuclear physics.

• Therefore, the requirements of voltage shape, voltage level, current rating, short - or long-term stability
for every HVDC generating system may differ strongly from each other. With the knowledge of
fundamental generating principles, it is possible, however, to select proper circuits for any special
application.

• The high dc voltages are generally obtained by means of rectifying circuits applied to ac voltage. Voltage
doubler circuits in desired number are then used in cascade for the multiplication of the dc voltage. These
are described in the following:
Cont…
• The high dc voltages are generally obtained by means of rectifying circuits applied to ac voltage.
• Voltage doubler circuits in desired number are then used in cascade for the multiplication of the dc
voltage. These are described in the following:

 Half Wave rectifier circuit

(where: D - Diode, C - smoothing capacitor, RL - the resistive load)

D IL(t)

Ac u
C RL
powe
r =(t)

suppl I(t)
y
HV
Transfor
m er

Fig. 10 Half-wave rectifier circuit Fig. 11 Voltage output of half-wave rectifier circuit
Cont…
If is the arithmetic mean value of the dc
output voltage
where T represents the periodic time required for the ac power supply cycle, given by:

Let the amplitude of the ripple be δU, then,

and the ripple factor is given by

the charge Q transferred to the load RL is given by:

and Q = 2δUC

When RL → 0, it means failure of the insulation

Cont…
 Voltage Doubler Circuit in Cascade
• Both full wave and half wave rectifier circuits produce a d.c. voltage less than the a.c. maximum voltage.
When higher d.c. voltyage are needed, a voltage doubler or cascaded rectifier doubler circuits are used.

C D
1 1’

Ûac= D C 2Udc=
Umax 1 1’
2Umax

(a)
C C C
1 2 3

D1 D D3
Ûac ’ 2’ ’
D D D
in
p 1 2 3
ut C 2 C 4 C 6 Hig
1’
U 2’
U 3’
U Voltage
h
dc dc dc
dc
(b) output
(c)

Fig. 12 (a) A simple voltage doubler circuit (b) Cascade circuit according to Cockcroft & Walton or Greinacher (c)
Waveform and potentials at the nodes of the first cascade circuit at no load
Cont…

Fig. 13 A 2000 kV HVDC test set, courtesy TüR Dresden, Germany

 HVDC Generation System –
Cockroft Walton Voltage Multiplier Circuit
• No Load Operation:
 The portion ABM′MA is exactly
identical to Greinacher voltage
doubler circuit and the voltage across
C1’ becomes 2Vmax when M attains a
voltage 2Vmax.
 During the next half cycle when B
becomes positive with respect to A,
potential of M falls and therefore,
potential of N also falls becoming less
than potential at M′ hence C2 is
charged through D2.
 Next half cycle A becomes more
positive and potential of M and N rise
thus charging C′2 through D′2.
 Finally all the capacitors C′1, C′2, C′3,
C1, C2, and C3 are charged.
• The voltage across the column of capacitors consisting of C1, C2,
C3, keeps on oscillating as the supply voltage alternates. This
column, therefore, is known as oscillating column
• However, the voltage across the capacitances C′1, C′2, C′3, remains
• The voltages at M′, N′, and O′ are 2Vmax, 4Vmax
and 6Vmax. Therefore, voltage across all the
capacitors is 2Vmax except for C1 where it is
Vmax only. The total output voltage is 2nVmax
where n is the number of stages.
• Thus, the use of multi-stages arranged in the
manner shown enables very high voltage to be
obtained. The equal stress of the elements (both
capacitors and diodes) used is very helpful and
promotes a modular design of such generators.
• Generator Loaded:
 When the generator is loaded, the output
voltage will never reach the value 2nVmax.
 Also, the output wave will consist of ripples on
the voltage. Thus, we have to deal with two
quantities, the voltage drop ΔV and the ripple
δV.
 Suppose a charge q is transferred to the load
per cycle. This charge is q = I/f = IT. The charge
comes from the smoothening column, the
series connection of C′1, C′2, C′3. If no charge
were transferred during T from this stack via
D1, D2, D3, to the oscillating column, the peak
to peak ripple would be
• If the potential of point O′ is now 6Vmax.
This discharges through the load resistance
and say the charge lost is q = IT over the
cycle. This must be regained during the
charging cycle.
• C3 is therefore supplied a charge q from C3.
For this C2 must acquire a charge of 2q so
that it can supply q charge to the load and q
to C3, in the next half cycle termed by
Cockroft-Walton as the transfer cycle
• Similarly C′1 must acquire for stability
reasons a charge 3q so that it can supply a
charge q to the load and 2q to the capacitor
C2 in the next half cycle (transfer half cycle)
• During the transfer cycle the diodes D1, D2,
D3, conduct when B is positive with
reference to A. Here C′2 transfers q charge
to C3, C1 transfers charge 2q to C2 and the
transformer provides change 3q.
• It is clear that in a multistage circuit the lowest capacitors are
responsible for most ripple and it is, therefore, desirable to
increase the capacitance in the lower stages.
• However, this is objectionable from the view point of High Voltage
Circuit where if the load is large and the load voltage goes down,
the smaller capacitors (within the column) would be overstressed.
• Therefore, capacitors of equal value are used in practical circuits i.e.,
C′n = C′n – 1 = ... C′1 = C and the ripple is given as
• Voltage drop ΔV is the difference between the theoretical no-load voltage
2nVmax and the on-load voltage
• Here C′1 is not charged up to full voltage 2Vmax but only to 2Vmax – 3q/C
because of the charge given up through C1 in one cycle which gives a
voltage drop of 3q/C = 3I/fC
• The voltage drop in the transformer is assumed to be negligible. Thus, C2
is charged to the voltage
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
 Impulse Voltage Generator
• The impulse voltage generators were designed to produce the standard lightning impulse, li,
waveshape up till a few decades ago.

• Impulse voltage generator to produce standard waveforms of ‘switching surge’ became a

necessity.
V V
T1 = 1.0 Tai
1 1.67T
T’ = l
0.9 B α
. B 0.3T1 T2
0 Tai = 0.5T
Fr l C
Fron 0.7
0 o C
t α
.5 nt
0 A
0.3 A
.3
D
0
T T t O 0.1α
O1 t
T1 Tc
’’ T2

Fig. 14 General shape and definitions of lightning impulse voltage. (a) Full wave (b) Wave chopped at its tail,
IEC 60060–1, High Voltage Test Techniques—Part 1: GeneralDefinitions and Test Requirements
Cont…
Figure illustrates the wave shape of one of the standard switching impulse. Impulse wave shapes of
100/2500, 250/2500 and 500/2500 µs are recommended. Permissible tolerance in the case of si for
Tcr is ±20% and for T2 it is ±60%.

1. Td
0
0
.9
0. T2
5

0
t
Tcr

Fig. 15 General shape of switching impulse voltages. Tcr: Time to crest. T2: Virtual time to half value. Td: Time above
90%, IEC 60060–1, High Voltage Test Techniques—Part 1: GeneralDefinitions and Test Requirements
Cont…
 Single-Stage Impulse Voltage Generator Circuit Analysis
• The capacitor C1 is charged slowly from a dc source until the spark gap G breaksdown and discharges
upon C2, the load capacitor over the resistors R1 and R2.
• This spark gap acts as a voltage-limiting and voltage sensitive switch.
C1: charging capacitor, R1: Wave front resistance
C2: load capacitance, , R2: Wave tail resistance

G R1

C1 R2 C2 u(t)
U0

(a
)
G R1

U0 C1 R2 C2 u(t)

(b
) R1

R2 R2 u(s)

(c Fig. 16 (a) and (b) Single-stage impulse generator circuits (c) Laplace transformed
) circuit
Cont…
The energy rating of the impulse generator, ….(1)
The output voltage is given by ….(2)

where
and ....(3)
By substitution we find,
....(4)
Where
and

….(5)

From the transform tables the following expression in the time domain can be obtained:
……(6)
where α1 and α2are the roots of the equation s2 + as + b = 0, given by,
…..(7)

…..(8)
C2<<C1
Cont…
u(t
) (-
)

Up

0
t

tmax

Fig. 17 The impulse voltage wave shape and its components according to the derived circuit equation
(6)
Cont…
 Dimensioning of Single-Stage Impulse Generator Circuit
• An impulse voltage generator circuit consists of capacitors and resistors.
• With an appropriate choice of the combination of the wave front and the wave tail resistors, R1 and
R2 respectively, desired shape of the output voltage, both lightning and switching impulse
voltages, can be produced.

….(1)

….(2)

• Both the equations Eq. (1) and Eq. (2) contain the time constants 1/α1 and 1/α2, which depend
upon the desired waveshape.
Table I Time constants for some selected impulse voltage wave shapes
T1 /T2 Tcr /T2 1/α1 1/α2
(µs) (µs)
(µs) (µs)
1.2 / 50 - 68.2 0.405
250/2500 - 2877 104
- 250/2500 3155 62.5
Cont…
• Multistage Impulse Generator and Their Triggering Methods
• The schematic diagram of Marx circuit and its modification are shown in Figs respectively.

• Usually the charging resistance Rs is chosen to limit the charging current to about 50 to 100
mA, and the generator capacitance C is chosen such that the product CRs is about 10 s to 1
min.

• The gap spacing is chosen such that the breakdown voltage of the gap G is greater than the
charging voltage V. Thus, all the capacitances are charged to the voltage V in about 1 minute.

• When the impulse generator is to be discharged, the gaps G are made to spark over
simultaneously by some external means. Thus, all the capacitors C get connected in series
and discharge into the load capacitance or the test.

• The discharge time constant CR1/n (for n stages) will be very very small (microseconds),
compared to the charging time constant CRs which will be few seconds.

• Hence, no discharge takes place through the charging resistors Rs. In the Marx circuit is of
Fig. a the impulse wave-shaping circuit is connected externally to the capacitor unit.
Cont…
Further
R' -U R' -U R' -U R' Stages
-U
Gn Impuls
G1 G2
C1' C1' C1' 3 C1' C1' e
d G
R1'' Voltag
c e
0
R2' R1' R2' R1' R2' R1' R2' R1' +nU
+U +2U +3U C2

Multistage
generator

R'2: stage wave tail resistors, R'1: stage wave front resistors
R"1: external wave front resistor, R': charging resistors

Fig. 18 Multistage impulse generator with wave tail and front

resistors in each stage
Cont…

Fig. 19 A 7200 kV, 720 kJ, 36 stage impulse voltage generator, courtesy Fivestar HV Testing Equipment, China
Cont…
• Triggering of Impulse Generator
Three ways of triggering an impulse generator
• Fix the gap distances between the stage spheres in increasing order and increase the applied
dc stage voltage till the flashover occurs.
• Set the gap distance between the spheres large enough, apply a desired charging dc voltage
across them, and then reduce the gap distance till flashover takes place.
• Provide a trigatron at the first stage. Fix both, the desired stage voltage (charging voltage) and
also corresponding stage sphere gaps in increasing order gap distances, within prescribed
limits. Then apply the trigger pulse on the ‘trigatron’ to initiate the flashover which continues
in sequence in all stages of the generator.

Fig. 20 The Trigatron spark gap

High Impulse Current Generator
 Sources of overcurrents and generation of overvoltages
• The high power frequency short circuit current in the power system network keeps flowing
and clears only when the circuit is opened with the help of the operation of a circuit breaker.
• The flow of high current results in storage of high energy in the inductance of the network.
• This energy is released in developing excessive overvoltage across the circuit breaker contacts
on opening, which travels towards the still energised healthy part of the network in the form
of a ‘traveling wave’.
• It is defined as ‘switching overvoltage transient’
• The overvoltage, transient in nature, depends upon the instant at which the short circuit
current is interrupted.
 Damaging effects of high currents
• The damage caused by direct injection of high impulse form of current accompanied with
lightning strikes are multi-faced.
• The damage caused by the continuous power frequency short circuit currents are well
known.
Cont…
 Design and construction of impulse current generator
• The main capacitor C in this circuit is charged with high voltage dc power supply over a
charging resistor R' to a voltage magnitude Uo
• This capacitor is discharged on the test object, R2 L2, over damping resistance and inductance, R1
L1, with the help of a ‘spark gap’ .
• For producing higher magnitudes of impulse currents, a bank of discharge capacitors connected
in parallel.

Fig. 21 Basic circuit of Impulse Current Generator with single

discharge capacitor
Cont…

(a)

(b)

Fig. 22 (a) An Impulse Current Generator circuit with multi-discharge capacitors, (b) A 200 kA impulse
current generator (100 kV, 250 kJ) in modular construction with 10 discharge capacitors, courtesy
HIGHVOLT Prüftechnik GmbH, Dresden, Germany.
Cont…
 Analysis of the circuit-producing impulse current
• The potential equation for the discharge circuit can be written as

• The effective impedance Z of the discharge loop can be given as;

Z
When R2< 4 L/C
• The time varying current in the discharge circuit is given by the
relation;

• Where ω is the angular frequency of the oscillating current given

by;

or =
• The peak value of the output impulse current can be calculated by putting t = t1

• The time taken for the impulse current to decay to its 50 % value from the peak, ‘t2’ or th is estimated by
the expression;
t2 =th = π/ω
Cont…

Fig. 23 (a) Output current wave forms for under, over and critically damped circuit
conditions.
Cascaded High Voltage Multiplier
 Cascaded High Voltage Multiplier

• The rectifiers R1 and R2 with transformer T1 and condensers C1 and C2 produce

an output voltage of 2V
• This circuit is duplicated and connected in series or cascade to obtain a further
voltage doubling to 4V
• T is an isolating transformer WHICH NEEDS TO GIVE AN INSULATION of 2Vmax
since the transformer T2 is at a potential of 2Vmax above the ground
• The voltage distribution along the rectifier string R1, R2, R3 and R4 is made
uniform by having condensers C1, C2, C3 and C4 of equal values
• The arrangement may be extended to give 6V, 8V and so on by repeating further
stages with suitable isolating transformers
• Limitations:
 If valves are used, the filament transformers have to be suitably designed
and insulated, as all the cathodes will not be at the same potential from
ground
 The arrangement becomes cumbersome if more than 4V is needed with
cascaded steps
 Electrostatic Generator- Van De Graff

• Principle:
 The electric charges are moved against the
force of electric fields, thereby higher
potential energy is gained at the cost of
mechanical energy
• An insulated belt is moving with uniform
velocity ν in an electric field of strength E (x).
• Suppose the width of the belt is b and the
charge density σ consider a length dx of the
belt, the charge dq = σ bdx
• The force experienced by this charge
• An insulating belt is run over pulleys. The
belt, the width of which may vary from a
few cms to metres is driven at a speed of
about 15 to 30 m/sec, by means of a
motor connected to the lower pulley
• The belt near the lower pulley is charged
electrostatically by an excitation
arrangement
• The lower charge spray unit consists of a
number of needles connected to the
controllable d.c. source (10 kV–100 kV) so
that the discharge between the points
and the belt is maintained
• The charge is conveyed to the upper end
where it is collected from the belt by
discharging points connected to the
inside of an insulated metal electrode
through which the belt passes.
• The entire equipment is enclosed in an
earthed metal tank filled with insulating
gases of good dielectric strength viz. SF6
• Merits:
 Very high voltages can be easily generated
 Ripple free output
 Precision and flexibility of control
• Limitations:
 Low current output
 Limitations on belt velocity due to its tendency for
vibration. The vibrations may make it difficult to
have an accurate grading of electric fields
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y20lKZB5BR0
 Summary
• All the high voltage equipment need to go through test with higher voltage than their
rated voltage during the manufacturing process.
• The test voltages are two to three times higher than their line to ground working
voltage.
• The equipment are also required to undergo tests with high impulse voltages to ensure
their withstand capability against the possible over voltages in the system.
• The power ratings of the high voltage test equipment is quite low since the
current
requirement under the test is only to charge the capacitance formed by the insulation.
• Special techniques for the measurement of high voltage power frequency, dc and
impulse, in laboratory are described in detail.
• Special instruments for the measurement of dielectric properties have
been
introduced, for example, tanδ, IR, PB etc.
• For a well-equipped high voltage laboratory such measuring instruments become an
integral part for non-destructive quality control testing.