ME-302 Fluid Mechanics-I

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences

FLUID MECHANICS-I

Dr. Ajmal Shah, PIEAS

 BOOKS

Fluid Mechanics
Frank White 5th and 7th Edition

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

Munson 6th Edition
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Chapter-01
 What is Fluid?
Matter exists in three primary phases:
solid, liquid, and gas

• Substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as

a fluid.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 4
Distinction between solid and fluid
solid and fluid
• Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the
basis of the substance’s ability to resist an applied shear
stress that tends to change its shape.
• A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming,
whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the
influence of shear stress, no matter how small.
• In solids stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids
stress is proportional to strain rate.
• When a constant shear force is applied, a solid eventually
stops deforming, at some fixed strain angle, whereas a
fluid never stops deforming and approaches a certain
rate of strain.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 5
 Normal and shear stress?
• Stress is defined as the force per unit area.
• Normal component: Normal stress
 In a fluid, the normal stress is called pressure
• Tangential component: Shear stress

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 6

Distinction between gas and liquid
• A liquid takes the shape of the container and forms a free
surface in the presence of gravity.
• A gas expands and fills the entire available space. Gases
cannot form a free surface.
• Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 7

 What is Fluid Mechanics?
• Fluid Mechanics: The fluid mechanics is defined as
the branch of Mechanics that deals with the
behavior of fluids at rest or in motion and the
interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
Fluid Mechanics can be divided into 3 branches:
• Fluid Statics: mechanics of fluids at rest.
• Kinematics: It deals with velocities and streamlines
w/o considering forces or energy.
• Fluid Dynamics: It deals with the relations between
velocities and accelerations and forces exerted by or
upon fluids in motion.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 8
 What is Fluid Mechanics?
Fluid Mechanics can also be divided into:
• Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that are
practically incompressible (such as liquids and gases at low
speeds) is usually referred to as hydrodynamics.
• Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
• Gas dynamics: It deals with the flow of fluids that undergo
significant density changes, such as the flow of gases through
nozzles at high speeds.
• Aerodynamics: It deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over
bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low
speeds.
• other specialized categories such as meteorology, oceanography,
and hydrology deal with naturally occurring flows.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 9
 Laws Applied to Fluid Mechanics?
• The same fundamental laws encountered in physics
and other mechanics courses.
• Newton’s law of motion,
• conservation of mass, and the
• first and second laws of thermodynamics.
• There are strong similarities between the general
approach to fluid mechanics and to rigid-body and
deformable-body solid mechanics.
• This is indeed helpful since many of the concepts and
techniques of analysis used in fluid mechanics will be
ones we have encountered in other fields of
mechanics.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 10
 Applications of Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics is extremely important in many areas
of engineering and science.
Examples are:
• Biomechanics
 Blood flow through arteries
 Flow of cerebral fluid
• Meteorology and Ocean Engineering Red blood cells flow
 Movements of air and water currents
• Chemical Engineering
 Chemical processing equipment

Ocean currents
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 11
 Applications of Fluid Mechanics
• Mechanical Engineering
 Design of pumps, turbines, air-conditioning equipment,
pollution-control equipment, etc.
• Civil Engineering
 Transport of river sediments
 Pollution of air and water
 Design of piping systems
 Flood control systems

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 12

 Continuum view of Fluids
• It is convenient to assume fluids are continuously
distributed throughout the region of interest. That is,
the fluid is treated as a continuum.
• This continuum model allows us to avoid dealing with
molecular interactions directly. We will account for such
interactions indirectly via viscosity.
• A good way to determine if the continuum model is
acceptable is to compare a characteristic length, L of the
flow region with the mean free path, λ of molecules.
• If L>> λ, continuum model is valid.
• Mean free path is the average distance a molecule
travels before it collides with another molecule.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 13
 Dimensions and Units
Before going into details of fluid mechanics, we need
to define dimensions and units.
A dimension is the measure by which a physical
variable is expressed quantitatively.
A unit is a particular way of attaching a number to the
quantitative dimension.
For Example:
• Length is a dimension associated with variables such as
distance, displacement, width, deflection and height.
• While centimeters and inches are both numerical units for
expressing length.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 14

 Dimensions and Units
Primary Dimensions:
• In fluid mechanics there are only four primary dimensions from
which all other dimensions can be derived:
i. Mass ii. Length
iii. Time iv. Temperature
Unit Systems:
• Systems of units have always varied widely from country to
country, even after international agreements have been
reached.
• In general, two primary sets of units are used:
i. SI (System International) units ii. English units
• These dimensions and their units in both systems are given in
Table below.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 15
 Dimensions and Units

• All other variables in fluid mechanics can be

expressed in terms of {M}, {L}, {T}, and {Θ}.
• For example, acceleration has the dimensions {LT-2}.
• The most crucial of these secondary dimensions is
force (mass times the acceleration), which is directly
related to mass, length, and time by Newton’s
second law.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 16
 Dimensions and Units
Newton :
• Force required to accelerate a 1 kg of mass to 1 m/s2.
Pound force:
• Force required to accelerate a 1 slug of mass to 1 ft/s2.
• Slug is the mass that accelerates to 1 ft/s2 when acted upon
by a force of 1 lbf.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 17

 Dimensions and Units
Secondary Dimensions:
• List of some important secondary variables in fluid
mechanics, with dimensions derived as combinations of the
four primary dimensions, is given in Table below.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 18

 Dimensions and Units
Consistent Units:
• All Fluid Mechanics equations should be dimensionally
homogeneous.
• Use consistent units; that is, each additive term have the same units.
Homogeneous versus Dimensionally Inconsistent Equations

• Where p is the pressure drop across the valve.

• SG is the specific gravity of the liquid.
• Cv is the valve flow coefficient, which manufacturers tabulate.
• This formula is totally inconsistent, with one side being a flow rate {l3/T} and the
other being the square root of a pressure drop {m1/2/(l1/2T)}.
• It follows that Cv must have dimensions, and rather odd ones : {l7/2/m1/2}.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 19

 Dimensions and Units

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 20

 Dimensions and Units

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 21

 Dimensions and Units

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 22

 Eulerian and Lagrangian Desciptions

Eulerian: The first view, appropriate to fluid mechanics, is

concerned with the field of flow and is called the Eulerian method
of description.

Lagrangian: The second method, which follows an individual

particle moving through the flow, is called the Lagrangian
description.
FLUID MECHANICS-I D . AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS
R 23
 The Velocity Field
• Foremost among the properties of a flow is the velocity field
V(x, y, z, t).
• Determining the velocity field is often tantamount to solving
a flow problem, since other properties follow directly from
the velocity field.
• Velocity is a vector quantity and is generally a function of
position and time.
• It has three components u, v, and w, each a scalar field in
itself:

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 24

 The Velocity Field
• Several other quantities, called kinematic properties, can be
derived by mathematically manipulating the velocity field.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 25

 The Velocity Field

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 26

 Thermodynamic Properties of a Fluid
While the velocity field V is the most important fluid property,
it interacts closely with the thermodynamic properties of the
fluid. These properties are;
• 1. Pressure, p
• 2. Density, ρ
• 3. Temperature, T
• 4. Internal energy, e Important when work,
• 5. Enthalpy, h heat, and energy balances
• 6. Entropy, s are treated
• 7. Specific heats, cp, cv
• 8. Coefficient of viscosity, μ
Transport
• 9. Thermal conductivity, k
properties
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 27
 Thermodynamic Properties of a Fluid
• These nine quantities are true thermodynamic properties.
• Determined by thermodynamic condition (state) of the fluid.
• Two basic properties such as pressure and temperature are
sufficient to fix the value of all the others:

• Thermodynamic properties describe the state of a system, i.e.,

a collection of matter of fixed identity which interacts with its
surroundings.
• The system will be a small fluid element, and all properties
will be assumed to be continuum properties of the flow field.
• Thermodynamics is normally concerned with static systems,
whereas fluids are usually in variable motion with constantly
changing properties.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 28
 Thermodynamic Properties of a Fluid
Do the properties retain their meaning in a fluid flow
which is technically not in equilibrium?
• The answer is yes, from a statistical argument.
• In fluids at normal pressure an enormous number of
molecular collisions occur over a very short distance of the
order of 1 μm, so that a fluid subjected to sudden changes
rapidly adjusts itself toward equilibrium.
• We therefore assume that all the thermodynamic properties
listed above exist as point functions in a flowing fluid and
follow all the laws and state relations of ordinary
equilibrium thermodynamics.
• There are, of course, important non-equilibrium effects such
as chemical and nuclear reactions in flowing fluids.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 29
 Thermodynamic Properties of a Fluid
Pressure:
• Next to velocity, the pressure p is the most dynamic variable
in fluid mechanics.
• Pressure is the (compression) stress at a point in a static
fluid. Its units are Pa, N/m2, lb/in2, lb/ft2
Temperature:
• Temperature T is a measure of the internal energy level of a
fluid. Its units are C0, K, F0, R0

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 30

 Thermodynamic Properties of a Fluid
Density:
• The density of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol ρ
(rho), is defined as its mass per unit volume.
• The value of density can vary widely between different
fluids, but for liquids, variations in pressure and temperature
generally have only a small effect on the value of ρ .
m
Density (mass per unit volume): 
V
[ m ] kg
Units of density: [ ]   3 ( in SI units )
[V ] m
• In general, liquids are about three orders of magnitude more
denser than gases at atmospheric pressure.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 31

 Thermodynamic Properties of a Fluid
Density:
• The heaviest common liquid is mercury, and the lightest gas is
hydrogen.
• Compare their densities at 20°C and 1 atm:
• Mercury: 13,580 kg/m3; Hydrogen: 0.0838 kg/m3
• They differ by a factor of 162,000.
• Thus the physical parameters in various liquid and gas flows might
vary considerably.
• Density is highly variable in gases and increases nearly
proportionally to the pressure level.
• Density in liquids is nearly constant; the density of water (1000
kg/m3) increases only 1 percent if the pressure is increased by a
factor of 220.
• Thus most liquid flows are treated analytically as nearly
incompressible.
FLUID MECHANICS-I D . AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS
R 32
 Thermodynamic Properties of a Fluid
Specific Weight:
• Specific weight of a fluid, designated by Greek symbol, ϒ
(gamma), is defined as its weight per unit volume.
• Specific weight is related to density through the equation;
Specific weight (weight per unit volume):   g
Units of specific weight:
kg m N
[  ]  [  ][ g ]  3 2  3 ( in SI units )
m s m
• Under standard conditions (g=32.174 ft/sq.s =9.807 m/sq.s)
• The specific weights of air and water at 20°C and 1 atm. are
approximately;

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 33

 Thermodynamic Properties of a Fluid
Specific Gravity:
• The specific gravity of a fluid is defined as the ratio of a fluid
density to a standard reference fluid, water (for liquids), and
air (for gases):
• For liquids the reference fluid is generally water at 40C
(39.20F). At this temperature the density of water is 1.94
slug/ft3 (1000 kg/m3).  liquid  liquid g liquid
Sliq   
 water  water g water
• For gasses the reference fluid is generally air at 200C (680F).
At this temperature the density of air is 2.34e-3 slug/ft3
(1.205 kg/m3).
 gas  gas g gas
S gas   
 air  air g air

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 34

 Viscosity
• Viscosity can be thought as the internal stickiness of a fluid.
• Representative of internal friction in fluids.
• Internal friction forces in flowing fluids result from cohesion
and momentum interchange between molecules.
• In liquids, viscosity decreases with increasing temperature
(i.e. cohesion decreases with increasing temperature).
• In gases, viscosity increases with increasing temperature (i.e.
molecular interchange between layers increases with
temperature, setting up strong internal shear)
• Viscosity relates the local stresses in a moving fluid to the
strain rate of the fluid element. When a fluid is sheared, it
begins to move at a strain rate inversely proportional to a
property called its coefficient of viscosity.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 35
 Viscosity
• Consider a fluid element sheared in one plane by .
• The shear strain angle δθ will continuously grow with time.
• The upper surface moves at speed δu larger than the lower.
• Common fluids as water, oil, and air show a linear relation
between applied shear and resulting strain rate.

(by Newton)

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 36

 Viscosity
• Coefficient of viscosity, μ has the dimensions of stress-time.
• {FT/L2} or {M/(LT)}.
• The BG unit is slugs/ft-s, and the SI unit is kg/m-s.
• The fluids which follow this eqt. are called Newtonian fluids,
after Sir Isaac Newton, who first postulated this resistance
law in 1687 and the equation is termed as Newton’s law of
viscosity.

• Viscosity is important, for example,

 In determining amount of fluids that can be transported
in a pipeline during a specific period of time.
 Determining energy losses associated with transport of
fluids in ducts, channels and pipes.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 37
 Viscosity
• Variation of Viscosity with Temperature
• Gas viscosity increases with temperature.
• Two common approximations are the power law and the
Sutherland law:

• where μ0 is a known viscosity at a known absolute

temperature T0 (usually 273 K).
• The constants n and S are fit to the data.
• Both formulas are adequate over a wide range of
temperatures.
• For air, n ≈ 0.7 and S ≈ 110K = 199°R.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS
 Viscosity
• Variation of Viscosity with Temperature
• Liquid viscosity decreases with temperature and is roughly
exponential, μ ≈ a.e-bt;
• But a better fit is the empirical result that given below;

• For water, with T0 = 273.16 k, μ0 = 0.001792 kg/(m.s),

suggested values are a = -1.94, b = -4.80, and c = 6.74, with
accuracy about 1 percent.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 39

Absolute viscosity of
common fluids at 1 atm.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 40

 Viscosity
• The viscosity of a fluid increases only weakly with pressure.
• For example, increasing p from 1 to 50 atm will increase
viscosity of air only 10%.
• The fluids which obey the Newton’s law of viscosity are
known as Newtonian fluids.
• Because of viscosity, at boundaries (walls) particles of fluid
adhere to the walls, and so the fluid velocity is zero relative
to the wall.
• This is called the no slip conditions.
• Viscosity and associated shear stress may be explained via
the example of : flow between no-slip parallel plates.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 41

 Flow between no-slip parallel plates
⃗
𝐹 ,⃗
𝑉
Moving plate x
h

Fixed plate x
x

Force⃗
F induces velocity ⃗
𝑉 on top plate.

At bottom plate velocity is zero

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 42

 Flow between no-slip parallel plates

The velocity induced by moving top plate can be sketched

as follows: y u(y = 0) = 0
⃗
𝑉
u(y=h)=⃗
𝑉
h

u( y)
The velocity induced by top plate is expressed as follows:
According to Newtons Law of Viscosity;

The shear stress is constant throughout the fluid

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS
 Flow between no-slip parallel plates

y
⃗
𝑉
Hence a = 0 and b = V/h.
Then the velocity profile between
Y
the plates is given by
u( y)

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 44

 Viscosity
• Quite often viscosity appears in fluid flow problems
combined with the density in the form;

• This ratio is called the kinematic viscosity and is denoted

with the Greek symbol, ν (nu).
• The dimensions of kinematic viscosity are {L2/T} and the BG
units are ft2/s and SI units are m2/s.
• Dynamic viscosity, μ is often expressed in the CGS system
with units of g/(cm.s), this combination is called a Poise.
• In the CGS system, kinematic viscosity has units of cm2/s,
and this combination is called a Stoke.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 45

Flow between no-slip parallel plates

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 46

 Non-Newtonian and Newtonian fluids
• Newtonian fluid is one, whose shear stress is directly
proportional with strain rate.
• Non-Newtonian fluid is one, who does not obey the linear
law.
• Non-Newtonian fluids may be of two types;
i. Fluids which increase the resistance with increasing applied stress
(dilatant fluids, shear-thickening fluids).
ii. Fluids which decrease resistance with increasing applied stress
(pseudoplastic fluids, shear-thinning fluids).
• Some fluids require a gradually increasing shear stress to
maintain a constant strain rate and are called rheopectic.
• The opposite case of a fluid which thins out with time and
requires decreasing stress is termed thixotropic.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 47

Non-Newtonian and Newtonian fluids

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 48

 Compressibility
• All fluids compress if pressure increases, resulting in an
increase in density.
• Compressibility is the change in volume due to a change in
pressure, .
• A good measure of compressibility is the bulk modulus.

dp 1
E    ( specific volum e )
d 
p is pressure

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 49

 Compressibility
• From previous expression we may write
dp (  fina l  in itial ) ( p fina l  p in itial )
E   
d in itial E
• For water at 15 psia and 68 degrees Farenheit,
E   3 2 0 , 0 0 0 psi
• From above expression, increasing pressure by 1000 psi will
compress the water by only 1/320=(0.3%) of its original
volume
• Thus, water may be treated as incompressible (density is
constant)
• In reality, no fluid is incompressible, but this is a good
approximation for certain fluids

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 50

 Surface tension
• The intensity of the molecular attraction per unit
length along any line in the surface is called the
surface tension and is designated by the Greek
symbol σ (sigma).
• For a given liquid the surface tension depends on
temperature as well as the other fluid it is in contact
with at the interface.
• The cohesive forces among liquid molecules are
responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 51

 Surface tension
• In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in
every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in
a net force of zero.
• The molecules at the surface do not have other molecules on
all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards.
• This creates some internal pressure, which forces the liquid
surfaces to contract to the minimal area.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 52

 Surface tension

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 53

 Surface tension
• Surface tension of a clean air-water interface.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 54

 Surface tension
• Another important surface effect is the contact angle which
appears when a liquid intersects with a solid surface.
• The force balance would then involve both Y and θ.
• If the θ < 90°, the liquid is said to wet the solid.
• if θ > 90°, the liquid is termed nonwetting.
• Water is extremely wetting to a clean glass, with θ≈0°.
• The contact angle is sensitive to the actual physicochemical
• conditions of the solid-liquid interface.
• For a clean mercury-air-glass interface, θ =130°.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 55

 Surface tension

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 56

 Surface tension

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 57

 Vapor pressure
•

liquid

What is vapor pressure of water at 100°C? 101 kPa

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 58

 Vapor pressure
• Figure A below shows cavitation bubbles being formed on
the low-pressure surfaces of a marine propeller. In a high
pressure region, they collapse implosively.
• Cavitation collapse can rapidly spall and erode metallic
surfaces and eventually destroy them, as shown in Fig. B

A B
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS
 No-Slip and No-Temperature Jump
Conditions
• When a fluid flow is bounded by a solid surface, molecular
interactions cause the fluid in contact with the surface to
seek momentum and energy equilibrium with that surface.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 60

 Flow Patterns
• Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines;
• A streamline is a line everywhere tangent to the velocity
vector at a given instant.
• A pathline is the actual path traversed by a given fluid
particle.
• A streakline is the locus of particles which have earlier
passed through a prescribed point.
• Streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines are identical in
steady flow.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 61

 Flow Patterns

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 62

 Flow Patterns
• A streamtube is a closed pattern of streamlines.
• By definition the fluid within a streamtube is confined there
because it cannot cross the streamlines.
• Thus the streamtube walls need not be solid but may be
fluid surfaces.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 63

 Flow Patterns
• Figure below shows an arbitrary velocity vector.
• If the elemental arc length dr of a streamline is to be parallel
to V, their respective components must be in proportion:
• The pathline, or displacement of a particle, is defined by
integration of the velocity components,

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 64

 Flow Patterns

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 65

 Flow Patterns

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 66

 Flow Patterns

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 67

 Basic Flow-Analysis Techniques
• There are three basic ways to attack a fluid-flow problem.
• They are equally important.
i. Control-volume, or integral analysis (Chap. 3)
ii. Infinitesimal system, or differential analysis (Chap. 4)
iii. Experimental study, or dimensional analysis (Chap. 5)
• In all cases, the flow must satisfy the three basic laws of
mechanics plus a thermodynamic state relation and
associated boundary conditions:
i. Conservation of mass (continuity)
ii. Linear momentum (Newton’s second law)
iii. First law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy)
iv. A state relation like ρ = ρ(p, T)
v. Appropriate boundary conditions at solid surfaces, interfaces,
inlets, and exits.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 68
 Basic Flow-Analysis Techniques
• We normally assume that a given flow is either
• Steady or unsteady
• Inviscid or viscous
• Incompressible or compressible
• Gas or liquid
• 1D, 2D, or 3D

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 69

 History of Fluid Mechanics
• ARCHIMEDES (287–212 B.C.)
• Established elementary principles of buoyancy and flotation.
• SEXTUS JULIUS FRONTINUS(A.D. 40–103)
• Wrote treatise on Roman methods of water distribution.
• LEONARDO da VINCI (1452–1519)
• Expressed elementary principle of continuity;
• observed and sketched many basic flow phenomena;
• suggested designs for hydraulic machinery.
• GALILEO GALILEI (1564–1642)
• Indirectly stimulated experimental hydraulics;
• revised Aristotelian concept of vacuum.

FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 70

 History of Fluid Mechanics
• BLAISE PASCAL (1623–1662)
• Finally clarified principles of barometer, hydraulic press, and
pressure transmissibility.
• ISAAC NEWTON (1642–1727)
• Explored various aspects of fluid resistance—inertial, viscous, and
wave; discovered jet contraction.
• HENRI de PITOT (1695–1771)
• Constructed double-tube device to indicate water velocity through
differential head.
• DANIEL BERNOULLI (1700–1782)
• Experimented and wrote on many phases of fluid motion, coining
name “hydrodynamics”; devised manometry technique and adapted
primitive energy principle to explain velocity-head indication;
• proposed jet propulsion.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 71
 History of Fluid Mechanics
• LEONHARD EULER (1707–1783)
• First explained role of pressure in fluid flow;
• formulated basic equations of motion and so-called Bernoulli
theorem; introduced concept of cavitation and principle of
centrifugal machinery.
• JEAN le ROND d’ALEMBERT (1717–1783)
• Originated notion of velocity and acceleration components,
differential expression of continuity, and paradox of zero resistance
to steady nonuniform motion.
• ANTOINE CHEZY (1718–1798)
• Formulated similarity parameter for predicting flow characteristics
of one channel from measurements on another.
• GIOVANNI BATTISTA VENTURI (1746–1822)
• Performed tests on various forms of mouthpieces— in particular,
conical contractions and expansions.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 72
 History of Fluid Mechanics
• LOUIS MARIE HENRI NAVIER (1785–1836)
• Extended equations of motion to include “molecular” forces.
• AUGUSTIN LOUIS de CAUCHY (1789–1857)
• Contributed to the general field of theoretical hydrodynamics
and to the study of wave motion.
• GOTTHILF HEINRICH LUDWIG HAGEN (1797–1884)
• Conducted original studies of resistance in and transition
between laminar and turbulent flow.
• JEAN LOUIS POISEUILLE (1799–1869)
• Performed meticulous tests on resistance of flow through
capillary tubes.
• HENRI PHILIBERT GASPARD DARCY (1803–1858)
• Performed extensive tests on filtration and pipe resistance;
initiated open-channel studies carried out by Bazin.
FLUID MECHANICS-I D . AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS
R 73
 History of Fluid Mechanics
• JULIUS WEISBACH (1806–1871)
• Incorporated hydraulics in treatise on engineering mechanics, based on
original experiments; noteworthy for flow patterns, nondimensional
coefficients, weir, and resistance equations.
• WILLIAM FROUDE (1810–1879)
• Developed many towing-tank techniques, in particular the conversion
of wave and boundary layer resistance from model to prototype scale.
• ROBERT MANNING (1816–1897)
• Proposed several formulas for open-channel resistance.
• GEORGE GABRIEL STOKES (1819–1903)
• Derived analytically various flow relationships ranging from wave
mechanics to viscous resistance— particularly that for the settling of
spheres.
• ERNST MACH (1838–1916)
• One of the pioneers in the field of supersonic aerodynamics.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 74
 History of Fluid Mechanics
• OSBORNE REYNOLDS (1842–1912)
• Described original experiments in many fields— cavitation, river model
similarity, pipe resistance— and devised two parameters for viscous
flow; adapted equations of motion of a viscous fluid to mean conditions
of turbulent flow.
• JOHN WILLIAM STRUTT, LORD RAYLEIGH (1842–1919)
• Investigated hydrodynamics of bubble collapse, wave motion, jet
instability, laminar flow analogies, and dynamic similarity.
• VINCENZ STROUHAL (1850–1922)
• Investigated the phenomenon of “singing wires.”
• EDGAR BUCKINGHAM (1867–1940)
• Stimulated interest in the United States in the use of dimensional
analysis.
• MORITZ WEBER (1871–1951)
• Emphasized the use of the principles of similitude in fluid flow studies
and formulated a capillarity similarity parameter.
FLUID MECHANICS-I D . AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS
R 75
 History of Fluid Mechanics
• LUDWIG PRANDTL (1875–1953)
• Introduced concept of the boundary layer and is generally
considered to be the father of present-day fluid mechanics.
• LEWIS FERRY MOODY (1880–1953)
• Provided many innovations in the field of hydraulic machinery.
Proposed a method of correlating pipe resistance data which is
widely used.
• THEODOR VON KÁRMÁN (1881–1963)
• One of the recognized leaders of twentieth century fluid mechanics.
Provide major contributions to our understanding of surface
resistance, turbulence, and wake phenomena.
• PAUL RICHARD HEINRICH BLASIUS (1883–1970)
• One of Prandtl’s students who provided an analytical solution to the
boundary layer equations. Also, demonstrated that pipe resistance
was related to the Reynolds number.
FLUID MECHANICS-I DR. AJMAL SHAH, PIEAS 76