MODULE 2: SIZE REDUCTION

OF SOLIDS
Principles of Comminution – Energy and Power Requirements in
Comminution, Crushing Efficiency, Mechanical Efficiency. Laws of
Crushing, Size Reduction Equipment – Crushers – Grinders – Cutting
Machines. Open and Closed Circuit Operation, Feed Control, Mill
Discharge, Energy Consumption, Removal of Heat.
Size reduction
• All the ways in which particles of solids are broken or cut to smaller pieces.

• Throughout chemical industries solids are reduced in size by different methods

for different purposes e.g.
1. Chunks of ores are crushed to workable size
2. Synthetic chemicals are ground into powder.
• Commercial products must sometimes meet very specific requirements as to
the size and sometimes the shape of the product.
• Particles are ground to increase the reactivity of solids in some industrial
reactions.
• It eases the separation of unwanted large impurities by mechanical methods.
• It reduces the bulk of fibrous materials for easier handling.
Comminution
Solids are broken in many ways.
The four methods are commonly used.

1. Compression - coarse reduction of hard solids

2. Impact - coarse, medium, fine
products
3. Attrition (or) Rubbing - very fine products
4. Cutting - definite shape and size
Size reduction
Criteria for size reduction
• Crushers and grinders are used for size reduction (also known as comminution).

• An ideal crusher or grinder should have

• A large capacity,

• Consume as little energy as possible and

• Product particles should practically have the same size.

In practice all these criteria are hardly met.

As a matter of fact, the actual capacity of any crusher or grinder is always several times less than its ideal
capacity, also the power required for crushing or grinding is much higher than the calculated theoretical power.
Finally, it is not uncommon to have products having a very large particle size distribution. Sometimes, a screen
can be put at the outlet of the crusher or grinder so as to remove the coarsest particles in the product but
this provision cannot eliminate the too fine particles produced
Size reduction
Process of converting large size to small size.
Large size ore - workable size
Plastic sheet - small pieces
Crystal - powder

Key Advantages:

1. Increases the reactivity of solids

2. Permits easy separation of unwanted materials
3. Easy handling and easy waste disposal
Other Advantages
 Content uniformity

 Uniform flow

 Effective extraction of drug

 Effective drying

 Improves physical stability. The rate of sedimentation decreases by

reducing particle size

 Improves dissolution rate

 Improves rate of absorption. Smaller the particle, greater is the absorption.

 Increases surface area and viscosity

 Facilitates bioavailability, uniform mixing and drying

Applications

• Coal washeries

• Ore processing industry

• Chemical industry

• Paint industry

• Cement industry

• Food processing industry

Factors related to nature of raw materials affecting size
reduction

• Hardness- It is easier to break soft material than hard materials

• Fibrous-These are tough in nature. A soft, tough material has more

difficulty than a hard, brittle substance. Ex: Ginger. Here cutters can
be used.
• Friable-These tend to fracture along well defined planes.

• Brittle substances can be easily converted into fine particles

• Elastic / Sticky- Become soft during milling. Ex: synthetic gums,

waxes, resins.
• Low melting substances should be chilled before milling.
Factors related to nature of raw materials affecting size
reduction

• Melting point -Waxy substances, fats and oils are softened during

size reduction due to heat generated. This is avoided by cooling the

mill and the substance.
• Hygroscopic-Certain substances absorb moisture content rapidly.

This wet mass hampers the milling process

• Solvated-Hydrates liberate water during milling, causes clogging of

mill. Ex: sodium sulphate.

• Thermolability-Certain Substances are degraded by hydrolysis and

oxidation, due to moisture and atmospheric oxygen. Heat produced

on milling enhances these reactions.
Characteristics of Ideal size reduction equipment

1. Have large capacity

2. Require small power input/unit product
3. Yield a product of single size (or) desired size.

Energy and power requirement:

Energy fed to machine - to create new surface
- friction in bearing, moving
part
- heat
Crushing Efficiency (ηc):

• Where, es is the surface energy per unit area and Wn is the energy absorbed.

Mechanical Efficiency (ηm):

It is the ratio of surface energy absorbed to energy input (W).
• Grinding energy used per unit mass

( )
𝑷 𝑾 𝟔 𝒆𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
= = −
˙ 𝒎 𝜼𝒄 𝜼𝒎 𝝆𝒑 𝝓 𝒃 𝑫 𝒔𝒃 𝝓 𝒂 𝑫 𝒔 𝒂
𝒎

• Where, m is the mass of material being ground

, = Volume-surface mean diameter of the feed and product,
respectively
, = Sphericity of feed and product, respectively
= particle density
Kick’s Law: Work required for crushing a given mass
of material is constant for the same reduction ratio.
𝑷 𝑫 𝒔𝒂
=𝑲 𝒌 ln
𝒎
˙ 𝑫 𝒔𝒃
 Rittinger’s Law
• Work required for crushing is proportional to new surface created.
𝑷
˙
𝒎
=𝑲 𝒓
𝟏
(−
𝟏
𝑫 𝒔𝒃 𝑫 𝒔𝒂 )
Bonds law
It states that power required for crushing is proportional to the square
root of the surface to volume ratio of the product.
Or
Total work useful in breakage that has been applied to a given weight
of homogeneous broken material is inversely proportional to the
square root of the average size of product particles, directly
proportional to the length of the crack tips formed and directly
proportional to the square root of new surface created
Work index – It is defined as gross energy requirement in kW
hr/ton of feed needed to reduce a very large size to such a size
that 80% of the product passes through 100μm screen.
Lewis, Walker, Mcadams and Gilliland Formula

• -------(A) where C is constant

• n= 1, and integrate from DF to DP
---- (B) Kick’s Law
n= 2, and integrating we get,
----- (C) Rittinger’s Law
n greater than 1, integrate equation A from DF to DP

Put n= 3/2, we get ------(D) Bond Law

What is the power required to crush 100 ton/h of limestone if 80 % of the
feed passes a 2 -in screen and 80 percent of the product a 1/8 -in screen?
Problem
A certain crusher takes rock whose average particle
diameter is 0.025 m and crushes it to a product whose
average particle diameter is 0.018 m, at the rate of 20
tonnes/hour. At this rate, the mill takes 9 HP of power and
0.46 HP power is required to run it empty.
(i) What would be the power consumption for same
capacity, if the average particle diameter in in the product is
0.008 m
(ii) How much power would be required under the same
conditions by kicks law.
• A material is crushed in a jaw crusher and the average
size of the particle reduced from 5 cm to 1 cm, with the
consumption of energy 1.32 x 104 J/kg. what will be the
consumption of energy to crush the same material of an
average size 0f 7.5 cm to 2.5 cm assuming Rittingers law
and kicks law.
• The power require to crush 100 ton/hr of a material is
179.8 kW, if 80% of feed passes through a 51 mm screen
and 80% of product passes through a 3.2 mm screen.
What is the work index of the material.
• What will be the power required for the same feed at 100
ton/hr to be crushed such that 80% pass through a 1.6
mm screen
Crushers (coarse to Grinders
Ultrafine grinders
intermediate) (intermediate to fine)

Hammer mills
Hammer mills;
Jaw crusher with internal
impactors
classification

Rolling-compression mills
Gyratory • Bowl mills Fluid-energy
crusher • Roller mills mills

Crushing rolls Attrition mills Agitated mills

Tumbling mills
• Rod mills
• Ball mills; pebble mills
• Tube mills; compartment mills
1. Crushers
Primary - 150-250 mm
Secondary - 6mm
2. Grinders 74 µm
3. Ultra fine grinders 1-50 µm

Video 1
Product size 250-50 mm
Swinging jaw 20-30o
Jaws close & open 250-400 times/min
125-425 gyrations/min
Feed rate 4500 ton/hr

Capacity depends on
impact strength of feed
and speed
Roll dia 600 mm max size of product 2d
Product size 12-1 mm cos α = (r + d) / (r + R)
Angle of nip (2α)
It is the angle formed by the tangents to the roll faces at a
point of contact with a particle to be crushed.
What should be the diameter of a set of rolls to
take feed of size equivalent to 38 mm spheres
and crush to 12.7 mm? Coefficient of friction is
0.29.
• Answer:

• Diameter: 615 mm
A certain set of crushing rolls has rolls of 1000 mm
diameter and width 375 mm. They are set so that the
crushing surfaces are 12 mm apart at the narrowest
point. What is the maximum permissible size of feed?
Angle of nip = 30°
Capacity 500 ton/hr
Particles are broken by impact alone.
Grind fibrous solid, steel turnings, sticky clay
Primary reduction machine for rock and ore, processing up to
600ton/hr
It gives more equidimensional particles
Reduction of lime stone
Cement clinker, coal
Feed rate 50 ton/hr
Product size
99% pass thro’200mesh
Single runner mill 350-700 rpm
Double runner mill 1200-7000 rpm
Reduction of starch, insecticide powders
Half of its volume is filled by balls
Conical grate-prevents small balls comes out the mill

Video
At critical speed
Centrifugal force = centripetal force

Operating speed of the mill is in between 50 and 75% of critical speed

Problems
• A certain crusher accepts a feed material having a
volume-surface mean diameter of 19 mm and gives a
volume-surface mean diameter of 5 mm. The power
required to crush 15 tonnes per hour is 7.5 kW. What will
be the power consumption if the capacity is reduced to 12
tonnes per hour?
Solution: Rittinger’s Law

𝑷
˙
𝒎
=𝑲 𝒓
(
𝟏
−
𝟏
𝑫 𝒔𝒃 𝑫 𝒔𝒂 )
• Find out the critical speed of ball mill using the following data:
Diameter of ball mill: 450 mm
Diameter of ball: 25 mm

• What rotational speed, in revolutions per minute, would you

recommend for a ball mill 1200 mm in diameter charged with
75 mm balls

• A certain set of crushing rolls has rolls of 1000 mm diameter

by 375 mm width of face. They are set so that the crushing
surfaces are 12 mm apart at the narrowest point. The angle of
nip is 30 degrees. What is the maximum permissible size of
feed.
• A screen with an aperture of 6 mesh BSS is treating a feed with
66% of +6 mesh and producing an oversize fraction containing
89% of +6 mesh particles. If the undersize fraction contains 2%
of +6 mesh particles, calculate the effectiveness of the screen.

• A quartz mixture having a certain screen analysis is screened

through a standard 10 mesh screen. Calculate the mass ratio
of overflow and underflow to feed. Also calculate the
effectiveness of screen. Due to blinding, an appreciable fraction
of the screen surface becomes inactive. The blinding tendency
is more pronounced with fine screens than with coarse
screens.

Data: Dp = Dpc = 1.651 mm, XF = 0.47, XD = 0.85 and XB = 0.195

Feed rate 6000 kg/hr
Oval loop- 25 to 200 mm dia
Product size ½ -10 μm
6-9kg air/kg of product
1-4kg steam/kg of product

video
Grind hard materials such as silica or

titanium oxide

Grinding medium is suspended in the

liquid which contains hard materials. It is

taken in agitated vessel and vibrated

about 20 Hz.

Product is withdrawn through a screen at

the bottom. It gives a product size of

1µm or finer
Grind hard materials such as silica or
titanium oxide
Grinding medium is suspended in the
liquid which contains hard materials. It is
taken in agitated vessel and vibrated about
20 Hz.
product is withdrawn through a screen at
the bottom. It gives a product size of 1µm
or finer
Clearance -25µm
Capacity
Small mill 3lit/min
Large mill 440lit/min
Knife Cutters
Rotor speed 200-900 rpm
Knife attached to rotor 2-12
Bed knife 1-7

Used in the manufacture of

Rubber or plastic.

Gives product of cube, squares

depending upon knife angle
Calculate the operating speed of the ball mill if
the diameter of the mill is 500 mm, diameter of
the ball is 40 mm and the operating speed is
50% of the critical speed of the mill.
• Answer 31 rpm
• In a ball mill of diameter 2000 mm, 100 mm diameter steel
balls are being used for grinding. Presently, for the
material being ground, the mill is run at 15 rpm. At what
speed will the mill have to be run if the 100 mm balls are
replaced by 50 mm balls, all other conditions remaining
the same?
Equipment Operation
Requirements for good performance
1. Feed suitable size and enters at uniform size
2. Product removed as soon as possible
3. Unbreakable material kept out of the machine.
4. Heat generation in the mill should be removed

Open circuit operation - no oversize particle returned to

the mill
Closed circuit grinding

Closed circuit operation- oversize particle returned to the mill

Open circuit grinding
Disadvantage:
More power requirement because more energy is wasted in
regrinding the particles that are already fine enough
Mill Discharge:
• In continuous mill to avoid buildup of material
rate of discharge = rate of feed
• Discharge rate must be such that the working parts of the mill
can operate most effectively on particle.
• If particles are crushed more than needed, then more energy
will be wasted. This type of crushing operation is called
choke crushing.
- It requires more power - May damage the mill
• If particles are readily dropout of the machine and screened
to separate particle oversized, then this goes as recycle, this
kind of operation is called free discharge crushing or free
crushing.
• The product usually drops out the bottom of the mill. In
revolving mill it escapes through openings in the mill wall
at one end of the cylinder- peripheral discharge.

• If crushed particles are lifted by scoops and dropped

into a cone that directs it out through a hollow trunnion-
trunnion discharge.
Energy consumption
Size reduction is the most inefficient of all unit operations.
99% of the energy goes to operating the equipment,
producing undesirable heat and noise, leaving less than 1%
for creating new surface.
Removal of heat
• Cooling water is circulated through coils in the mill
• Sometimes air is blown through the mill
• Solid CO2 (dry ice) is admitted with the feed
• Liquid N2 also used to bring more drastic
temperature reduction.