8.

SUPERPOSITION
8.1 Stationary waves
Objectives:
 1. explain and use the principle of superposition
 2. show an understanding of experiments that demonstrate stationary
waves using microwaves, stretched strings and air columns (it will be
assumed that end corrections are negligible; knowledge of the concept
of end corrections is not required)
 3. explain the formation of a stationary wave using a graphical method,
and identify nodes and antinodes
 4. understand how wavelength may be determined from the positions
of nodes or antinodes of a stationary wave
A wave is a periodic disturbance that travels through a medium from one
[point to another transferring energy, but without actual displacement of the
(particles of) the medium itself.
We can consider waves as either progressive waves or stationary waves.
Progressive waves are waves start from a source and travel outwards,
transferring energy from one place to another.
• The wave profile moves along with the speed of a wave.
• A snapshot taken along a progressive wave it repeats itself at equal
intervals.
• The repeat distance is called wavelength, λ. Equal intervals of time for
repeats is period, T.
• The vibrations of a particle in progressive waves are of the same amplitude
and frequency, but the phase of vibrations changes for different points
along the wave.
An example of a progressive transverse wave.
 Stationary waves (standing waves)

A stationary (standing wave) is one in which some points are permanently

are rest (nodes), others between these points (Antinodes) are vibrating with
varying amplitude and the maximum amplitude is midway between nodes.

If you adjust the frequency of the shaking, you should be able to achieve a
stable pattern like one of those shown above.
Properties of stationary waves
 There are points where displacement is permanently zero. These are Nodes
 At point between successive nodes the vibrations are in phase.
N.B: This is in sharp contrast to progressive waves where phases of points
near each other are all different.
 Each point along the wave has a different amplitude of vibration from
neighboring points. Antinodes have the greatest amplitude.
Question 1: How is different in progressive waves?
Answer: ………………………………………………………………………………………………
Question 1. State the principle of superposition of waves.
Answer: ………………………………………………………………………………………………
 The wavelength (λ) is equal to the distance twice the distance
between successive nodes or antinodes.
So the distance between successive nodes is half wavelength ().

λ
Nodes and Antinodes
Nodes. Are points that do not move (the displacement is permanently zero).

Antinodes. Are points where the spring oscillates with maximum amplitude.
Snapshots
The blue-coloured wave is moving to
the left and the red-coloured wave to
the right. The principle of
superposition of waves is used to
determine the resultant
displacement.
The profile of the long spring is
shown in green.
Formation of stationary waves
Imagine a string stretched between two fixed points, for example a guitar
string. Pulling the middle of the string and then releasing it produces a
stationary wave.
There is a node at each of the fixed ends and an antinode in the middle.
Releasing the string produces two progressive waves travelling in opposite
directions. These are reflected at the fixed ends.
The reflected waves combine
to produce the stationary wave.
The Figure aside shows how stationary
waves can be set up using a long spring
The important conclusions are:
• separation between two adjacent nodes (or between two adjacent
antinodes) = ()
• separation between adjacent node and antinode = ()
This can then be used to determine either the speed v of the progressive
wave or its frequency f by using the wave equation.
v=f
Where v is speed of a wave, f is frequency of a wave and is wavelength.

Note: a stationary wave does not travel and therefore has no speed.
Note: A stationary wave does not transfer energy between two points like a
progressive wave.
Activity: Think of any practical application of stationary waves.
QUESTIONS:
1. A stationary (standing) wave is set up on a vibrating spring. Adjacent
nodes are separated by 25cm. Determine:
a the wavelength of the stationary wave
b the distance from a node to an adjacent antinode.
2. Write down any two examples of
(a) Stationary longitudinal waves
(b) Stationary transverse waves
3. Use three points to differentiate stationary waves from progressive
waves.
4. State two conditions necessary for stationary waves to be set up in a
string.
Observing stationary waves
Here we look at experimental arrangements for observing stationary waves,
for mechanical waves on strings, microwaves, and sound waves in air
columns.
1. Stretched strings – Melde’s experiment
 A string is attached at one end to a vibration generator, driven by a signal
generator.
 The other end hangs over a pulley and weights maintain the tension in
the string. When the signal generator is switched on, the string vibrates
with small amplitude. Larger amplitude stationary waves can be produced
by adjusting the frequency.
 The pulley end of the string
cannot vibrate; this is a node
 The figure below shows
a vibrating string where
the frequency of the vibrator
has been set to produce two loops.

When a stationary wave is established, one half of the string moves upwards as the other
half moves downwards. In this photograph, the string is moving too fast to observe the
effect. This experiment can be extended to investigate the effect of changing the length
of the string, the tension in the string and the thickness of the string.
2. Microwaves
• Start by directing the microwave transmitter at a metal plate, which reflects
the microwaves back towards the source.
• Move the probe receiver around in the space between the transmitter and
the reflector and you will observe positions of high and low intensity.
• This is because a stationary wave is set up between the transmitter and the
sheet; the positions of high and low intensity are the antinodes and nodes
respectively.
• If the probe is moved along the direct line from the transmitter to the
plate, the wavelength of the microwaves can be determined from the
distance between the nodes.
• Knowing that microwaves travel at the speed of light c (3.0 × 108ms−1), we
can then determine their frequency f using the wave equation:
c= f λ
3. An air column closed at one end
• A glass tube (open at both ends) is clamped so that one end dips into a
cylinder of water. By adjusting its height in the clamp, you can change the
length of the column of air in the tube.
• When you hold a vibrating tuning fork above the open end, the air column
may be forced to vibrate, and the note of the tuning fork sounds much
louder.
• This is an example of a phenomenon called resonance. The experiment
described here is known as the resonance tube.
• For resonance to occur, the length of the air column must be just right. The
air at the bottom of the tube is unable to vibrate, so this point must be a
node. The air at the open end of the tube can vibrate most freely, so this is
an antinode. Hence the length of the air column must be one-quarter of a
wavelength (Figure 15.10a). (Alternatively, the length of the air column
could be set to equal three-quarters of a wavelength.
a The standard representation of a standing sound wave may suggest that it
is a transverse wave.
b A sound wave is really a longitudinal wave, so that the particles vibrate as
shown
Open-ended air columns The air in a tube which is open at both ends will
vibrate in a similar way to that in a closed column. Take an open-ended tube
and blow gently across the top.
should hear a note whose pitch depends on the length of the tube. Now
cover the bottom of the tube with the palm of your hand and repeat the
process. The pitch of the note now produced will be about an octave higher
than the previous note, which means that the frequency is approximately
twice the original frequency.
It is rather surprising that a standing wave can be set up in an open column of
air in this way. What is going on?
Compares the situation for open and closed tubes. An open-ended tube has
two open ends, so there must be an antinode at each end. There is a node at
the midpoint.
For a tube of length L you can see that in the closed tube the standing wave
formed is one-quarter of a wavelength, so the wavelength is 4L, whereas in
the open tube it is half a wavelength, giving a wavelength of 2L.
Closing one end of the tube thus halves the wavelength of the note and so
the frequency doubles.

The figure above shows standing wave patterns for sound waves in a a
closed tube, and b an open tube.
Stationary waves and musical
instruments
The production of different notes by musical instruments often depends on
the creation of stationary waves.
For a stringed instrument such as a guitar,
the two ends of a string are fixed, so nodes
must be established at these points
• Stationary waves can have different wave patterns, known as harmonics
• These depend on the frequency of the vibration and the situation in which they are
created
• These harmonics can be observed on a string with two fixed ends
• As the frequency is increased, more harmonics begin to appear
• Harmonics on a String
• When a stationary wave, such as a vibrating string, is fixed at both ends, the
simplest wave pattern is a single loop made up of two nodes and an antinode
• This is called the first harmonic or fundamental frequency
• The particular frequencies (i.e. resonant frequencies) of stationary waves formed
depend on the length of the string L and the wave speed v
• The frequencies can be calculated from the string length and wave equation
• For a string of length L, the wavelength of the lowest harmonic is 2L
• This is because there is only one loop of the stationary wave, which is a half wavelength
• Therefore, the frequency is equal to
When the string is plucked half-way along its length, it vibrates with an
antinode at its midpoint. This is known as the fundamental mode of vibration
of the string.
• The fundamental frequency is the minimum frequency of a standing wave
for a given system or arrangement.
• A harmonic is a note whose frequency is a whole number (positive integer)
multiple of the fundamental frequency.
• An overtone is a resonant frequency above the fundamental frequency of a
sound. E.g. plucking a guitar string – it will oscillate at several of its model
frequencies at the same time. This gives a sensation of hearing other
frequencies (overtones) other than the lowest frequency (fundamental).
Question: Define sound. …………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………...
Modes of vibration in strings

•
• The second harmonic has three nodes and two antinodes
•The wavelength is L and the frequency is equal to

•The third harmonic has four nodes and three antinodes

•The wavelength is 2L / 3 and the frequency is equal to
•The nth harmonic has n antinodes and n + 1 nodes
•The wavelengths and frequencies of the first three harmonics can be
summarised as follows;
• Diagram showing the first three modes of vibration of a stretched string
with corresponding frequencies
• If you look carefully at the equations for frequency for the first, second
and third harmonics then you will notice that for the
nth harmonic the frequency = n × frequency of first harmonic
Worked Example
A stationary wave made from a string vibrating in the third harmonic has a
frequency of 150 Hz. Calculate the frequency of the fifth harmonic
Answer:
• Step 1: Calculate the frequency of the first harmonic
• f3 = 3 f1
• f1 = f3 ÷ 3 = 150 ÷ 3 = 50 Hz
• Step 2: Calculate the frequency of the fifth harmonic
f5 = 5 f1
f5 = 5 × 50 = 250 Hz
• Examiner Tips and Tricks
Make sure to match the correct wavelength with the harmonic asked for in
the question:
The first harmonic (or n = 1) is the lowest frequency with half or quarter of a
wavelength
The second harmonic (or n = 2) is a full wavelength
• Frequency of the First Harmonic
The speed of a wave travelling along a string with two fixed ends is given by
• Where:
• T = tension in the string (N)
• μ = mass per unit length of the string (kg m–1)

For the first harmonic of a stationary wave of length L, the wavelength, λ = 2L

Therefore, according to the wave equation, the speed of the stationary wave
is:
v = fλ = f × 2L
Combining these two equations leads to the frequency of the first harmonic:
Worked Examples
A guitar string of mass 3.2 g and length 90 cm is fixed onto a guitar. The string
is tightened to a tension of 65 N between two bridges at a distance of 75 cm.

Calculate the frequency of the first harmonic produced when the string is
plucked.
Answer:
Required Practical: Investigating Stationary Waves
Using stationary sound waves to determine λ and v
modes of vibration in pipes
Determining the wavelength and
speed of sound
Since we know that adjacent nodes (or antinodes) of a stationary wave are
separated by half a wavelength, we can use this fact to determine the
wavelength λ of a progressive wave. If we also know the frequency f of the
waves, we can find their speed v using the wave equation v = f λ
An approach to Kundt’s dust tube
A loudspeaker sends sound waves along the inside of a tube. The sound
is reflected at the closed end.
When a stationary wave is established, the dust (fine powder) at the
antinodes vibrates violently.
It tends to accumulate at the nodes, where the movement of the air is
zero.
Hence the positions of the nodes and antinodes can be clearly seen.
 QUESTIONS
.1. For sound waves of frequency 2500Hz, it is found that two nodes are
separated by 20cm, with three antinodes between them.
a Determine the wavelength of these sound waves.
b Use the wave equation v = f λ to determine the speed of sound in air.
2. In a resonance tube experiment, resonance is obtained for sound waves
of frequency 630Hz when the length of the air column is 12.6cm and again
when it is 38.8cm. Determine:
a the wavelength of the sound waves causing resonance.
b the end-correction for this tube c the speed of sound in air.
3.
4.