Chapter 1: The Study of

CHEMISTRY
 Why should we study chemistry?

Chemistry is all about understanding how the world works. Chemistry is

used in our daily life for numerous tasks, including the food we eat, the air we
breathe, the clothes we wear, the shelter we lived in and even our own bodies
among other things.

The chemical reaction is the focus of chemistry.

Chemistry - is the study of matter and its properties, the changes that
matter undergoes, and the energy associated with those changes.
Chemistry in our Daily Lives

Chemistry is an active and constantly growing science; whose

importance is vital in our world and in our daily lives. The connection it
has to us is practically present in all our activities, influenced by
chemistry concepts and products. The toothpaste you use to brush your
teeth, the shampoo you use to wash your body and hair, the food you eat
and the process of digestion that takes place in your body, the public or
private transportation you take going to school, the air around, and the
pollutants from the factories and motor vehicles are all related to
chemistry.

In everything that you do, chemistry is at work.

Role of Chemistry in Society

Chemistry has helped advance human civilization. It contributes

to many aspects of human life. Through research in chemistry, crop-
enhancing agricultural chemicals have been synthesized to make sure
that society will have constant and viable food supply. Water-treatment
processes have been developed to make water fit for human
consumption. Life-saving pharmaceuticals have been formulated to
eradicate deadly diseases, and synthetic plastics and fibers have been
produced for both industrial and consumer use. Chemistry also plays an
important role in the production of shelter and clothing materials.
There are numerous other benefits that chemistry has given to
mankind. In all these, we can see that chemistry has a huge and vital
role in technological development.
The Role of Chemistry and its relationship with other Sciences
Everything that surrounds us is matter. The principles of
chemistry are, therefore, needed to understand the nature of matter so
that man will be able to deal with them and control them for the
improvement of human life.
Since chemistry is the study of matter, other sciences are allied
with it, some of its basic chemical principles are needed to understand
biology and physics. Chemistry is also needed in applied sciences like
medicine, nursing, nutrition, psychology, dentistry, medical technology,
and x-ray technology.
Branches of Chemistry:

1. Organic Chemistry is the study of the structures, composition, properties and reactions of
compounds that contain carbon and have a carbon-hydrogen bond. Organic compounds are
integral to a wide range of everyday products, including plastic, rubber, detergents,
cosmetics, fuel, medicines and food. Sub-branches of organic chemistry include Medical
Chemistry, Physical Organic Chemistry, Organometallic Chemistry, Stereochemistry, and
Polymer Chemistry.

2. Inorganic Chemistry deals with the study of substances that do not have Carbon as its
elemental component. Inorganic chemistry involves the study of the properties and behavior
of inorganic compounds including metals, minerals, ceramics, crystal structures, catalysts,
and most elements in the Periodic Table. It covers all chemical compounds that are ‘non-
organic’ in nature. Sub-branches of inorganic chemistry include Nuclear Chemistry,
Geochemistry, Bioinorganic Chemistry, Solid-State Chemistry, and Organometallic Chemistry.
3. Analytical chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses chemical analysis to
define types of matter and determine their quantities. There are qualitative and
quantitative methods of chemical analysis. Qualitative methods look at the
composition of matter, whereas quantitative methods examine how much of a
chemical exists within matter. It encompasses a wide range of techniques
including distillation, extraction, spectroscopy and spectrometry, separation,
electrophoresis, and chromatography. Sub branches of analytical chemistry
include Environmental Chemistry, Forensic Chemistry, and Bioanalytical
Chemistry.

4. Biochemistry is the study of chemical reactions that occur in living

organisms. It focuses on key molecules such as lipids, proteins, carbohydrates,
neurotransmitters, and nucleic acids, and tries to explain them in chemical
terms. Sub branches of biochemistry include genetics, molecular biology,
clinical biochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and agricultural biochemistry.
5. Physical Chemistry studies the structure, energy, and transformation
of substances from one state of matter to another; of interaction of one
body with another; etc. Physical Chemistry applies physics to the study
of chemistry.
Chemistry: The Central Science

Chemistry is sometimes referred to as “the central science” due

to its interconnectedness with a vast array of other scientific
disciplines.
Domains of Chemistry:
1. Macroscopic - physical changes, chemical changes
Macro is a Greek word that means “large.” The macroscopic domain is familiar
to us. It is the realm of everyday things that are large enough to be sensed directly by
human sight or touch. In daily life, this includes the food you eat and the breeze you
feel on your face.
 2. Microscopic - atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, protons, neutrons, chemical bonds
Micro comes from Greek and means “small.” The microscopic domain of
chemistry is almost always visited in the imagination. The most fundamental tenet of
chemistry is that all matter is composed of atoms and molecules.
3. Symbolic - use of symbols to perceive atoms, molecules and
reactions (chemical symbols, chemical formulas, chemical equations,
graphs, drawings
The symbolic domain contains the specialized language used to
represent components of the macroscopic and microscopic domains.
The Science of Chemistry: Observations and Models

Chemistry is an empirical science. In other words, scientists who

study chemistry do so by measuring properties of chemical substances
and observing chemical reactions. Once observations have been made,
models are created to help organize and explain the data.
Observations in Science

Observations in chemistry are made in a wide variety of ways for

a wide variety of reasons. Observations of nature involve some level of
uncertainty in most cases. One characteristic of making observations:
we must be careful to define what we intend to observe. Carefully
defining the measurement to be made, however, does not eliminate all
sources of uncertainty. Virtually any scientific measurement must be
made more than once to be valid. Because we cannot observe nature
with complete certainty, we need to establish the types of uncertainty
we encounter in making observations. To do this, two terms are used:
accuracy and precision.
Interpreting Observations

Not all experiments provide direct information about the questions

they ask. In many cases, we must infer answers from the data that are
obtained.

Precision refers to how closely two or more measurements of the same

quantity agree with one another. The precision is good if the individual
measurements are close to the average. The precision is poor if the
measurements have a wide deviation from the average value.

Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true/actual value of

the quantity that was measured. Precise measurements are most likely to
be accurate. However, measurements with high precision can be inaccurate.
From figure 1.3:
a. Good accuracy and good precision, as all the three darts are close to the maximum score region (accurate) and
also all the darts are close to each other (precise).
b. Poor accuracy but good precision, as all the three darts are close enough but far away from the score region.
c. Poor accuracy and poor precision, as all the darts are neither nearby nor to the maximum score region.
Fig 1.4. The dartboards illustrates the concepts of precision and accuracy
Models in Science
The number of observations made in the history of science is
tremendous. To organize this vast amount of information, scientists
create models and theories to make sense of a range of observations.
The words “model” and “theory” are sometimes used
interchangeably, although some scientists feel that the distinctions
between the two are important. Theory is a testable explanation of the
real world that has generally undergone scientific testing and model is a
simplified representation of the real world, typically used for
prediction.
Numbers and measurements in Chemistry

When we talk about numerical measurements, we need to be

very careful about the ways we use numbers and units.
Scientific Notation

Scientific Notation is a way of expressing numbers by the powers

of ten.

Regardless of their magnitude, all numbers can be expressed in

the form:
Example:

For numbers 1 and 2, express the given numbers in scientific notation:

1. 0.0000089  Scientific notation =

2. 18,900,000  Scientific notation =

For numbers 3 and 4, express the given numbers to standard notations.

3. Express 7.46 x 10 
4. 74.6 x 100 
Units
Units, such as liters, pounds, and centimeters, are standards of
comparison for measurements. Without units, a number can be
meaningless, confusing, or possibly life threatening.
International System of Units, SI units - from the French, Le Système
International d’Unités
- an updated version of the metric system

Some units comprise combinations of these base units and

therefore are termed derived units. The SI unit for energy, for example,
is the joule (J), and 1 J is defined as 1 kg.m2 s−2
Fig 1.5. Base Units of the SI System
 Example:

1 fs = 1x10-15 s
4 ng = 4x10-9 g
8 Gyr = 8x10 9 yr
5 Tw = 5x10 12 W

Fig. 1.6. Prefixes used in the SI system

Temperature

Temperature scales:

1. degrees Fahrenheit - °F

2. degrees Celsius - °C

3. Kelvin – K, the SI base unit of temperature

Kelvin is the SI base unit of temperature: it is the absolute
temperature scale.
Figure 1.7. Comparison of the three temperature scales
Examples:

1. Solder is an alloy made of tin and lead that is used in electronic

circuits. A certain solder has a melting point of 224°C. What is its
melting point in degrees Fahrenheit?

2. Helium has the lowest boiling point of all the elements at - 452°F.
Convert this temperature to degrees Celsius.

3. Mercury, the only metal that exists as a liquid at room temperature,

melts at -38.9°C. Convert its melting point to kelvin.

4. If a certain substance boils at 20 K, solve for its boiling point in the

0
C and 0F temperature scale.
Significant Figures
- the meaningful digits in a measured or calculated quantity.
Table 1.6. Rules in Evaluating Significant Figures (Ilao, Lontoc, Gayon, 2016; Chang, 2010)
Examples:
Carry out the following arithmetic operations to the correct
number of significant figures.

1. 11,254.1 g + 0.1983 g
2. 66.59 L – 3.113 L
3. 8.16 m x 5.1355
4. 0.0154 kg ÷ 88.3 mL