Material Balance

Dr. Bimal Das

 Introduction to Material Balance
• Material balance involves calculations the quantities of all materials that enter and leave any
system or process which are based on the principle of the "law of conversation of mass".

• This law states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in the process and the total mass
remains unchanged.
• The general principle of material balance calculations is to put and solve a number of
independent equations involve number of unknowns of compositions and mass flow rates of
streams enter and leave the system or process.

• The process can be defined as one or a series of operations in which physical and chemical
treatments are carried out and a desired product is result in the end such as distillation,
drying, absorption, chemical manufacture, … etc.
 The system can be defined as any arbitrary portion of a process that you want to consider for
analysis such as a reactor. The system boundary must be fixed in each problem by drawing
an imaginary boundary around it as shown in the following figure:
Closed system:
The material neither enters nor leaves the vessel (system), as
shown below:

Open system (flow system):

The material cross the system
boundary, as shown below:
 Material Balance Involves calculations the quantities of all materials that enters and leave any
system which are based on the principle of the “Law of Conservation of Mass”.

 This law states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in the process and the total mass are
remain unchanged.

 The chemical processes can be classified as Batch process, continuous process and Semi-Batch
Process.

 Material Balances are often compared to the balancing of current account. They are used in
industry to calculate mass flow rates of different streams entering and leaving or chemical
process.
 Material Balance Problems

Processes involving no chemical Processes involving chemical

reactions reactions

Steady-state Unsteady state Steady-state Unsteady state

operations operations operations operations
 Batch Process

 The feed materials are placed into the system (reactor, mixer, filter,….etc) at the beginning of the
process. These materials are held for a period of time known as "residence time" or " retention
period" during which the required physical and/or chemical changes are occurred. The products
are removed all at once after this time. No masses crossed the system boundary during this time.
Batch process fall into the category of closed systems.
 The basis used in such processes is usually "one batch", and the material balance for physical
batch processes in which there is no chemical reaction can be written as:
 Semi-Batch Process
 A semi-batch reactor of stirred type tank as shown in the Figure 1, often used for its own
particular characteristics. In this type, all quantity of one reactant is initially put in the reactor,
and then other reactants are continuously fed. Only flows enter the systems, and no leave, hence
the system is an unsteady state. This arrangement is useful when the heat of reaction is large.
The heat evolved can be controlled by regulating the rate of addition of one of the reactants.

Semi-Bath Reactor
 Continuous process
The input and output materials are continuously transferred across the system boundary; i.e.
the feed continuously enters the system and the product continuously leaves the system. The
physical and/or chemical changes take place during the flow of materials through the
effective parts of equipments (packing, sieve plate, filter cloth,…etc). A convenient period of
time such as minute, hour, or day must chosen as a basis over which material balance
calculations be made.

 From the law of conservation of mass outlined it follows that for any process which can
written in the following way

Input + generation − output − consumption = accumulation

 The general balance equation may be simplified according to the process. Thus above
equation can be written as

Input + generation = output + consumption

 This type of processes can be classified as
1. steady state
2. unsteady state

Steady state process:

The steady state process can be defined as that
process in which all the operating conditions
(temperature, pressures, compositions, flow rate,
…..etc.) remains constant with time. In such process
there is no accumulation in the system, and the
equation of material balance can be written as:
Unsteady state process:
For an unsteady state process, not all of the
operating conditions in the process (e.g.,
temperature, pressure, compositions, flow rate,…
etc.) remain constant with time, and/or the flows in
and out of the system can vary with time, hence the
accumulation of materials within can be written as
follows:
1. By their nature, batch and semi-batch processes are unsteady state operations since the
concentration within the closed system is continuously changed with time.
2. Continuous processes are usually runs as close as possible to the steady state by using
suitable control units. However, unsteady state (transient) conditions exist during the start up
of a process. All material balance and design calculations are done for steady state
conditions.
3. Batch processes are commonly used for small scale processes in which relatively small
quantities of a product are to be produced, while continuous process is better suited to large
production rates.
4. All material balance calculations in this chapter are made on steady state processes in
which the accumulation term is zero. However, material balance on a batch process can be
made over a residence time and on the basis of one batch ( integral balance).
Calculations of unsteady state processes are somewhat more complicated than that of the
steady state processes since involving differential equations which can be solve by
integration.
 A general Strategy for Solving Material Balance Problems

The strategy outlined below is designed to focus your attention on the main path rather than the
detours:
1. Read and understand the problem statement
This mean read the problem carefully so that you know what is given and what is to be
accomplished.

2. Draw a sketch of the process and specify the system boundary

Draw a simplified imaginary sketch (block diagram) or a flow sheet or process flow diagram
(PFD) consists of boxes which represent equipments, and lines which indicate all streams enter
and leaves each equipment.

3. Label the flow of each stream and the associated compositions with symbols
Put a letter as a symbol stream such as (F) for feed stream, (P) for product stream….etc.
Furthermore, put all the known values of compositions and stream flows on the figure by each
stream; calculate additional compositions from the given data as necessary.
Example: A continuous mixer mixes NaOH with H2O to produce an aqueous solution of NaOH.
Determine the composition and flow rate of the product if the flow rate of NaOH is 1000 kg/hr, and
the ratio of the flow rate of the H2O to the product solution is 0.9.
We will use this example in subsequent illustrations of the proposed strategy. For this example, just a
sketch of the process is required.
4. Write additional data required to solve the problem and the chemical equations if the
process involves chemical reaction.
5. Select a suitable basis of calculations.
6. List by symbols each of the unknown values of the stream flows and compositions
7. Make a number of independent material balances equations equal to unknown quantities to
be calculated. It is important to put these equations in proper sequence so that the first one content
only one unknown in order to avoid complicated solution of the simultaneous equations. Three
type of material balance equations can be formulated:

a. Equation for total quantities which is called total material balance or over all material
balance.
b. Equation for each component which is called component material balance. If there is no
chemical reaction the number of equations that can be written is equal to the number of
components in the system.
c. Equation for each element which is called element material balance if there is a chemical
reaction.
8. The existence of a substance that enters in one inlet stream and leaves in one outlet stream
with known compositions and it passes unchanged through the process unit (inert for chemical
reaction) is greatly simplified material balance calculations. This substance is termed as (tie
component). It is important to search for the existence of a tie component and formulate a
material balance equation. Nitrogen is considered as a tie component in handling of combustion
calculations. Since it is input within air stream, unreacted, and out with the exit flue gases. If
there are more than on tie component in the same input and output streams, these components
can be made on (over all tie components material balance).

9. Check your answers by introducing them, or some of them, into the material balance
equations. Are the equations satisfied? Are the answers reasonable?
 Material Balance Without Chemical Reactions
 There are three general methods of solving material balance problems for systems involving no
chemical reactions.

 First make the balance of tie material, the quantity of which does not change during particular
operation. The examples falling under this category include concentration of a solution in the
evaporator in which the dissolved solids do not change which is called as tie material for the
material balance.

 Very often , many inert chemical species which do not take part in the operation are involved in
the system. By making inert material balance, the material balance calculations can be simplified.

 Solving simultaneous equations when there are two or more compounds are present in the system
 Degrees of Freedom
 The concept of degrees of freedom is useful in physical chemistry or thermodynamics to define
a system in equilibrium having more than one phase. The same concept is also useful in
stoichiometry in solving the problems of a multi variate system.

 This is an index in which fixes the number of independent equations that are required to be
solved finding the specified number of unknowns, the system is considered as under defined.

 In certain system , the degrees of freedom is negative which indicated that the system is over
defined in nature.

 For example when a quadratic equation is solved two values of a parameter usually positive
and negative figures are obtained. The negative value is discarded thereby increasing the degree
of freedom

Degrees of Freedom = No of Variables – No of Equations = N - N

v E
 Most frequently used process unit

Various Important Operations Carried Out in Industry

The various important operations carried out in industry are as
follows:
1. Distillation
2. Absorption
3. Extraction
4. Crystallization
5. Drying
6. Mixing
7. Evaporation.
 Distillation

• This operation is used for the separation of the component of a

liquid mixture by partial vaporization and condensation. The
basic requirement for separation by distillation is that the
composition of the vapour be different from the composition of
the liquid with which it is in equilibrium.

• The vapour will be richer in the more volatile components

compared to the liquid with which it is in equilibrium.
• The product obtained on distillation are commonly referred to as
Distillate or top product.
• Here material balance is based on the more volatile component.
• The vapour phase is created by supplying thermal energy to liquid
to be distilled and this method of separation depends on the
difference in vapour pressures of different components at a given
temperature.
 Distillation is a process of separating the component substances from a liquid mixture
by selective vaporization and condensation.
Distillation result in essentially complete separation (nearly pure components).
Distillation can only be applied for two immiscible or non- reacting solid and liquid or
liquid and liquid.
FEW TYPES OF DISTILLATION

1. Batch distillation
2. Continuous distillation
3. Fractional distillation
4. Vacuum distillation
 1.BATCH DISTILLATION
Two liquids(A & B) are heated in a distillation tower. The ratio between A and B in the
vapour will be different from the ratio in the liquid

 Now A will be more in the vapour phase and would be separated and
will be obtained back on condensation.
 Also B be will be more in the retaining liquid.
 Finally component A is distilled off and the remaining component is
enriched in B.
 There is at least one volatile distillate fraction, which has boiled
and been separately captured as a vapour condensed to a liquid.
 There is always a residue, which is the least volatile residue that
has not been separately captured as a condensed vapour.
 2.CONTINOUS DISTILLATION

 In continuous distillation, the source materials, vapours, and distillate are kept at a constant
composition by carefully replenishing the source material and removing fractions from both
vapour and liquid in the system. This results in a better control of the separation process.
 Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which a liquid mixture is continuously
fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams
as time passes during the operation.
 Continuous distillation produces at least two output fractions.
 There is at least one volatile distillate fraction, which has boiled and been
separately captured as a vapour condensed to a liquid.
 Continuous distillation differs from batch distillation in the respect that
concentrations should not change over time
 3.FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

 As the solution to be purified is heated, its vapours rise to the

fractionating column.
 As it rises, it cools, condensing on the condenser walls and the
surfaces of the packing material. Here, the condensate continues
to be heated by the rising hot vapours.
 Each component with different boiling points would be
separated at each different stage and condensed to obtain a
liquid.
 At the bottom there would be highest melting point
component’s residue.
 Example- Fractional distillation of petroleum.
 4.VACCUM DISTILLATION

 Some compounds have very high boiling points. To boil such

compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure at which
such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the
temperature.
 Once the pressure is lowered to the vapour pressure of the
compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of
the distillation process can commence.
 This technique is known as vacuum distillation.
 Example-Dimethyl sulfoxide usually boils at 189 °C. Under a
vacuum, it distilles off into the receiver at only 70 °C as
shown in the figure.
 Distillation has many applications. For example:

•The distillation of fermented products produces distilled beverages with a high alcohol content,
or separates other fermentation products of commercial value.
•Distillation is an effective and traditional method of desalination.
•In the petroleum industry, oil stabilization is a form of partial distillation that reduces the vapor
pressure of crude oil, thereby making it safe for storage and transport as well as reducing the
atmospheric emissions of volatile hydrocarbons. In midstream operations at oil
refineries, fractional distillation is a major class of operation for transforming crude
oil into fuels and chemical feed stocks.
•Cryogenic distillation leads to the separation of air into its components –
notably oxygen, nitrogen, and argon – for industrial use.
•In the chemical industry, large amounts of crude liquid products of chemical synthesis are
distilled to separate them, either from other products, from impurities, or from unreacted starting
materials.
 Material Balance for Distillation

Consider the distillation of a binary mixture of

component A and B in which A is more volatile
component. Let F, D and W be the molar flow rates of
feed, distillate and residue respectively. And Xf, Xd and
Xw be the mole fraction of A in feed, distillate and residue
respectively. Considering the column as a whole the total
material balance gives,
Overall Material Balance Component Material Balance
F = D + W ….... (a) F. Xf = D. Xd + W. Xw ….... (b)
 1. A continuous distillation column is used to regenerate the solvent for use in a solvent
extraction unit. The column treats 200 kmol/h of a feed containing 10 mol% ethyl alcohol
and rest is water. The overhead product is 89 % alcohol and the bottom product is 0.3% (mol)
alcohol. The overhead product is sent to the extraction unit and the bottom is wasted. What is
the daily requirement of make-up alcohol in the solvent extraction unit.
Solution
Basis : 200 kmol/h of feed.

Let F, D and W be the molar flow rates of feed, distillate and residue respectively. And X f,
Xd and Xw be the mole fraction of A in feed, distillate and residue respectively.

F =200 kmol/h; Xw = 0.003

Xf = 0.10
Xd =0.89
 F = D + W ….... (a)
F. Xf = D. Xd + W. Xw ….... (b)
Substituting the given values in the above two equations that is equation (a) and (b), we get

D + W = 200 ………. (a)

200 * 0.10 = 0.89 D + 0.003 W …….. (b)

Solving we get D = 21.87 kmol and W = 178.13 kmol.

Alcohol wasted = Alcohol Present in the residue = W. X w

= 178.13 * 0.003 = 0.5344 kmol/h

Therefore the make up alcohol required per day = 24 * 46 * 0.5344 = 589.98 Kg

 2. A distillation column separates 10,000 kg/hr of a mixture containing equal mass of benzene
and toluene. The product D recovered from the condenser at the top of the column contains
95% benzene, and the bottom W from the column contains 96% toluene.

The vapour V entering the condenser from the top of the column is 8000 kg/hr. A portion of the
product from the condenser is returned to the column as reflux R, and the rest is withdrawn as the
final product D. Assume that V, R, and D are identical in composition since V is condensed
completely. Find the ratio of the amount refluxed R to the product withdrawn D.

Overall Process Balance: 10,000 = D + W ….. (i)

Benzene Balance: 10,000(0.50) = D(0.95) + W(0.04) …. (ii)
Solving simultaneously, D = 5050 kg/hr ; W = 4950 kg/hr
Total balance around the separator:
8000 = R + D R = 2950 kg/hr
Ratio (R/D) = (2950/5050) = 0.58
 3. A binary mixture consists of 35 % benzene and 65 % toluene are continuously fed to the
distillation column at a rate of 1000 kg/hr. Whereas, the distillate flow rate was 10% from the
feed flow rate. The distillate (top product) contains 85 % benzene. Calculate quantity and
compositions of the waste stream.
Although the distillation unit shown in Figure below is comprised of more than one unit of
equipment, you can select a system that includes all of the equipment inside the system boundary.
Consequently, you can ignore all the internal streams for this problem.
Basis: 1 hr
F = 1000 kg
P = (10 /100) of Feed = 0.1 x (1000) = 100 kg
 Absorber
 In Absorber, soluble constituents of a gas mixture are separated by
absorbing in a suitable solvent.

 The fundamental physical principle underlying the process of gas

absorption are the solubility of the absorbed gas and the rate of mass
transfer. One or more of the constituents of the gas mixture dissolved
in the liquid

 Example of absorption : Ammonia is absorbed from a gas mixture

of Ammonia-air by contacting gas with water known as Absorbers.

 The essential difference between absorption and distillation is that in

absorption, the liquid phase is used for effective separation whereas
in distillation the vapour and liquid phases are produced from the
feed material using boiling.

Fig : Absorber Unit

 Application/Importance of Absorption
 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) is removed from hydrocarbon gases by washing with alkaline
solution.

 Acetone can be recovered from acetone-air mixture by passing the gas stream into water
where acetone is dissolved into water.

 Washing ethanol vapours from carbon dioxide from molasses fermenter with water to
remove ethanol.

 Nitrogen oxides are absorbed in water to produce nitric acid.

 Removal of Ammonia which comes from coke oven plant using water.
 Material Balance for Gas- Liquid Absorber
Let us consider absorption of A from a gas mixture. G
and L represent the flow rate of gas and liquid in
kmol/h, x and y are mole fraction of liquid and gas
respectively.
Overall Material Balance Component Material Balance
G1 + L2 = G2 + L1 G1 y1 + L2 x2 = G2 y2 + L1x2

Material balance of Inert gas:

Inert gas in inlet = Inert gas in lean gas

Material balance of Solute:

Solute in inlet gas = Solute in outlet gas + Solute absorbed in solvent ………
 1. A gas mixture containing 15 mol % A and 85 mol % inerts is fed to an absorption tower
where it is connected with liquid solvent B which absorbs solute A. The mole ratio of solvent to
gas entering tower is 2:1. The gas leaving the absorber contains 2.5% A and 1.5% B and rest is
inerts (on mole basis). Find % recovery of A
Solution
Basis : 100 kmol gas entering into the
column.
Mole ratio of solvent to gas entering tower
is 2:1
Therefore, solvent fed to the tower per unit
time is
= 2 ×100 kmol = 200 kmol

Material Balance of Inerts

Inerts in outlet gas = inerts in gas entering into the
tower
= 0.85 ×100 = 85 kmol
Let n be the kmol gas leaving the tower per unit time

Mole% inerts in gas leaving = 100- (mol % of A + mol % of B)

= 100- ( 1.5 + 2.5)
= 96 kmol
Thus ,
96 = (85/n) ×100
n = 88.54 kmol

Material Balance of Solute A

A in inlet gas = A in outlet gas + A absorbed in the solvent

0.15 × 100 = 0.025 × 88.54 + A absorbed

A absorbed = 15 – 2.21 = 12.79 kmol/ time

% A recovered = (12.79/15) × 100 = 85.27%

 2. A gaseous mixture (F) consists of 16 mol% CS2 and 84 mol% air are fed to the
absorption column at a rate of 1000 Ibmole/hr. Most of the CS2 input are absorbed by liquid
benzene (L) which is fed to the top of the column. 1 % of benzene input are evaporated and out
with the exit gas stream which consists of 96 mol% air, 2 mol% CS2 and 2 mol% benzene. The
product liquid stream (P) consists of benzene and CS2. Calculate the mole flow rates of (G), (L)
and (P) and the compositions.
 3. Acetone is recovered from Acetone-Air mixture containing 25% ( volume) acetone by
scrubbing with water. Assuming that air is insoluble in water, determine the percent of
Acetone in the entering gas that is absorbed if the gas leaving the scrubber analyses 5%
acetone.
Solution
Basis : 100 kmol gas entering into the column. Let G 1 and G2 be
the molar flow rate of gas at inlet and exit of the absorber
A
respectively, and y1 be the mole fraction of acetone at the inlet B
and y2 at the exit. The air is insoluble in water, the entire S
quantity of air in the entering stream will appear in the gas O
R
stream leaving the absorber. An air balance therefore lead to B
G1(1-y1) = G2 (1-y2) = 100*0.75 = G2 * 0.95 E
R
Therefore, G2 = 78.95 kmol
The amount of acetone in the gas leaving,
G2y2 = 78.95 * 0.05 = 3.9475 kmol
The amount of acetone in the gas entering,
G1y1 = 100 * 0.25 = 25 kmol
Acetone absorbed is
 Liquid Liquid Extraction
 The process of the separation of the components of a liquid mixture by treating with an
immiscible liquid solvent in which the constituents are differently soluble is known as
liquid liquid extraction.

 Liquid liquid extraction involves bringing the feed liquid in intimate contact with an
immiscible or partially miscible solvent allowing the solute to get distributed between
phases and finally separate from each other.
 Solvent rich phase is called Extract phase and the
residual solution from which solute is extracted is
called raffinate phase
 Solvent Extraction, also known as liquid-liquid extraction, is a method to separate compounds
based on their relative solubilities in two different immiscible liquids, usually water and an
organic solvent.

Solvent Extraction, consists of transferring one (or more) solute(s) contained in a feed solution to
another immiscible liquid (solvent). The solvent that is enriched in solute(s) is called Extract & the
feed solution that is depleted solute(s) is called Raffinate.
 Application
Today the process of Solvent Extraction is widely applied in miscellaneous fields of Science and
Technology

 Analytical Chemistry
 Extraction of Rare-earths & PGM
 Waste water treatment
 Mineral oil treatment & dewaxing
 Food industry(essential oil extraction)
 Perfume industry(fragrance extraction)
 Pharmaceutical industry
 Material Balance for Extraction
Feed is a mixture of B kg of inert solids and F kg of solute. S is the mass of solvent added.
The over flow is R kg of solution consisting of A and C . Under flow is B kg of inert solids
suspended in E kg clear solution. Concentration of solute is represent as the weight ratio of solute
in B free basis. Thus x and y are ratio of C to (A + C) in a mixture and N is calculated as the ratio
of B to (A + C) . Inert balance gives

Where NF and N are the inert

concentration in the feed and under
flow
The solution (A + C) balance can be written as

Component Material Balance

Overall material balance:
Feed solution + Solvent = Extract phase + Raffinate phase

If ‘A’ is the solute to be extracted, then material balance of A for fresh solvent:
A in feed solution = A in extract phase + A in Raffinate phase

Material balance for Solids:

Solids in seeds = Solids in meal (if no solids in solvent)

Material balance for Oil:

Oil in seeds = Oil in meal + Oil in solvent
 1. Soyabean seeds oil is extracted with hexane in a batch extractors. The flaked seeds contain
18.2% oil, 69.5% solid and 12.3% moisture. At the end of the process, cake is separated from
hexane oil mixture. The cake analysis yields 0.8% oil, 88.2% solids and 11.0% moisture. Find
the percentage recovery of oil. All percentage are by weight.
Solution: Basis: 100 kg of flaked seeds
 3. An aqueous solution of pyridine containing 27% (by weight) pyridine and 73% (by
weight) water is to be extracted with chlorobenzene. The feed and solvent are mixed well in batch
extractor and the mixture is then allowed to stand for phase separation. The extract phase contains
11% pyridine, 88% chlorobenzene and 1% water by weight. The raffinate phase contains 6%
pyridine and 94% water by weight. Calculate: (i) The quantities of two phases (layers) (ii) The
weight ratio of solvent to feed based on 100 kg of feed.

Let x be the quantity of extract phase, y be the quantity of raffinate phase, and z be the quantity of
solvent required.
Overall material balance:
Feed + Solvent = Raffinate phase + Extract phase
 100 + z = x + y………(i)
Material balance for Pyridine:
100 × 0.27 + 0 = x × 0.11 + y × 0.06
27 = 0.11x + 0.06y
 0.11x + 0.06y = 27………(ii)
Material balance for Water:
100 × 0.73 + 0 = x × 0.01 + y × 0.94
 73 = 0.01x + 0.94y
 0.01x + 0.94y = 73………(iii)

Solving Eqs. (ii) and (iii), we get

y = 75.48 kg and x = 204.28 kg.
The quantity of extract phase = 204.28 kg
The quantity of raffinate phase = 75.48 kg

Substituting the value of x and y in Eq. (i), we get

100 + z = 204.28 + 75.48
 z = 204.28 + 75.48 – 100
= 179.76 kg.
 Crystallization

 Crystallization refers to the formation of solid crystals from a homogeneous

solution.
 Technique used to purify solid compounds.
 Based on the principles of solubility.
 Impurities are excluded from the growing crystals and the pure solid crystals can be
separated from the dissolved impurities by filtration.
 A few parts per million may alter the product beyond recognition.
 Crystallizer
 Formation of solid crystals from a solution.

 It is an important technique for solid-liquid separation

Application/Importance of crystallizations

 Purifications of drugs.

 Improve bio-availability of the drug and choose the most

stable form.

 A crystalline powder is easily handled , stable, and

processes makes a good flow properties of a product.
Fig : Crystallizer Unit

 Production of Citric Acid.

Crystal can be defined as a solid particle, which is formed by the solidification
process under suitable environment in which structural units are arranged by a fixed
geometric pattern or lattice.

Crystal lattice is defined as an orderly internal arrangement of particles in three-

dimensional space.
Theories or Mechanism of Crystallization

•The formation of crystal from

solution involves three ps
ste
1. Super saturatio
n
2. Nucle us
formation
3. Crystal Growth
 A. Supersaturation
When the concentration of a compound in its solution is greater than the saturation
solubility of that compound in that solvent the condition is known as
supersaturation. This is an unstable state. From this supersaturates solution the
excess compound may be precipitated out or crystallize.
Supersaturation methods: can be achieved by the following

1. Evaporation of solvent from the solution.

2. Cooling of the solution.
3. Formation of new solute molecule as a result of chemical reaction
4. Addition of a substance, which is more soluble in solvent than the solid to be crystallized.
 IMPORTANCE OF CRYSTALLIZATION

 Crystallization from solution is important industrially because of the variety of materials

that are marketed in the crystalline form.
 Crystallization affords a practical method of obtaining pure chemical substances in a
satisfactory condition for packaging and storing. A crystal formed from an impure solution is
itself pure (unless mixed crystals occur).
 A drug may remain in different crystalline forms, some are stable, and rests are
metastable
• The metastable forms have greater solubility in water, thus have better bioavailability. By
controlling the conditions during crystallization, the quantity of metastable to stable forms
may be controlled.
.
• After crystallization water or solvent molecules may be entrapped within the crystal structure
and thus form hydrates or solvates which have different physical properties that may be
utilized in various pharmaceutical purpose.
• Particles with various micromeritics properties, compressibility and wettability can be
prepared by controlling the crystallization process.
 Material Balance for Crystallizers

Feed (F) Mother Liquor

Crystallizer
XF (L) XL

Where,
F = Feed Material; Overall Material Balance
Crystal (C) Xc
C= Crystal;
F = C+ L (a)
L= Mother Liquor;
Component Material Balance
Xf= Mole fraction of solute in feed;
F. Xf = C. XC + L. XL (b)
XC = Mole fraction of solute in pure crystal;
Note : For pure crystal mole fraction = 1
XL = Mole fraction of solute in mother liquor;
Overall material balance:
Feed solution = Saturated solution + Crystals

Material balance for crystals (Solute):

Crystals in feed solution = Crystals obtained + Crystals in saturated solution………
 1. A crystallizer is charged with 7500 kg of an aqueous solution at 104°C, 28.5% by weight
which is anhydrous sodium sulphate. The solution is cooled. During cooling operation 5% of
water originally present was lost. As a result, the crystals of Na 2SO4-10H2O crystallize out. The
mother liquor is found to contain 18.2% by weight of anhydrous salt. Calculate the yield of
crystals and quantity of mother liquor.
Solution: Basis: 7500 kg of feed.
Water present in the feed solution = 7500 × 0.715 = 5362.5 kg
Amount of water lost during cooling (V) = 5362.5 × 0.05 = 268.13 kg
Overall material balance:
F=V+L+C Balance for Na2SO4:
7500 = 268.13 + L + C F x F = V x V + L xL + C x C
L + C = 7500 – 268.13 7500 × 0.285 = 0 + L × 0.182 + C × 0.441
L + C = 7231.87………(i) 2137.5 = 0.182L + 0.441C
0.182L + 0.441C = 2137.5………(ii)
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
C = 3171.43 kg, L = 4059.70 kg
The yield of crystals (C) = 3171.43 kg
The quantity of mother liquor (L) = 4059.70 kg
 Solubility curves
When a particular substance (solute) dissolved in a particular solvent which yield a saturated
solutionis called solubility. Solubility of a compound increases with increase of temperature.
Solubility data of various compounds are necessary for basic chemical calculations involved in
crystallization process.
Generally, solubility data are presented through solubility curves of different compounds. Solubility
curves is the plot of temperature on x-axis and solubility (g of solute/100 g of solvent) on y-axis. A
typical solubility curves of a few compounds is shown in Figure 3.11.
1.
2. A crystallizer is charged with 100 kg of solution containing 25% Ba(NO 3)2 in water. On
cooling 10 % of original water evaporates. Calculate the yield of crystals when the solution is
cooled to 283 K. The solubility at 283 K is 7.0 kg Ba(NO 3)2 Ba(NO3)2
Solution
Basis = 100 kg of feed solution
Let C is the weight of the crystal, F is the weight of feed, Xf is the mole fraction of solute in
feed,
Let x2 be the solubility of the solute in weight fraction of solute, L and W be the weight of
mother liquor and water evaporated during crystallization operation.
F = 100 kg; Xf= 0.25; x2= 7/(100+7) = 0.0654; W= 0.75 * 0.1 * 100 = 7.5 kg

Total Material Balance

F = C+ L + W ………… (i)

100= C + L + 7.5

C + L = (100-7.5) = 92.5 ……. (ii)

Component Balance

F.Xf = C.Xc + L.XL + W.Xw

100 * 0.25 = 1* C + L. 0.0654 ……. (iii)

Solving Equation (ii) and (iii) we get, Weight of crystal (C) = 20.28 Kg
 3. A tank holds 10,000 kg of a saturated solution of Na2CO3 at 30°C. You want to crystallize
from this solution 3000 kg of Na2CO3.10H20 without any accompanying water. To what
temperature must the solution be cooled? The solubility data of Na2CO3 as a function of the
temperature is given as below:

Since the initial solution is saturated at 30oC,

you can calculate the composition of the
initial solution: Mass fraction of
Basis: 10000 kg of saturated solution at 30oC
Because we are treated this problem as an unsteady-
state problem (the flow = 0), the mass balance reduces
to:
 Extraction unit:
Example 4: Extraction of Streptomycin from a Fermentation Broth:
Streptomycin is recovered by contacting the fermentation broth with an organic solvent in an
extraction process. The extraction process is able to recover the Streptomycin because
Streptomycin has a greater affinity for dissolving in the organic solution than in the aqueous
solution. Figure E8.1 shows the overall process. Determine the mass fraction of Streptomycin
in the exit organic solvent assuming that no water exits with the solvent and no solvent exits
with the aqueous solution. Assume that the density of the aqueous solution is 1 g/cm3 and the
density of the organic solvent is 0.6 g/cm3.
Solution:
This is an open (flow), steady-state process without reaction. Assume because of the low
concentration of Strep. In the aqueous and organic fluids that the flow rates of the entering
fluids equal the flow rates of the exit fluids.
Basis: 1 min
 5. Oil seeds containing 49% oils, 40% pulp, 3% mineral salts and the rest moisture are
leached with Hexane as a solvent. The underflow from the leaching operation contains 25%
Hexane, 2.5% salts and 15% oil and 7.5% moisture. The overflow contains 25% oil which is
distilled to recover the entire Hexane in pure form leaving behind the oil, water and salt. The
underflow is subjected to steam distillation which recovers 95% hexane. For treating 100 kg
seeds, calculate
a) The kilogram of Hexane used.
b) Percent recovery of oil.
 Drying
Drying is the process of removal of small amount of moisture or other liquid from a solid
substance by the application of heat. The water or other liquid may be removed from the solid
substances either mechanically by filtration or by thermal vaporization. The process of removal of
water from the solid surface is cheaper by mechanical process rather than thermal process.
Therefore, it is advisable to reduce the water present in the solid as much as it is possible before
subjecting to the drying process. In drying process, dry solid is the product. Drying of wet solid
substances is possible when the surrounding environment is unsaturated with the water vapour.
Hence, the humidity present in the environment is an important factor for drying solids.
 In tray dryer, trays are placed in the drying
chamber and wet solids are loaded into it. Fresh air is
introduced through the inlet, which passes over the
heater. It heats the air introduced at a required
temperature. The hot air is circulated surrounding the
wet substances by means of a fan. The water molecules
present in the solid substances move towards the upper
surface of the solids and is picked up by the circulated
air. This event occurs in a single pass of air and latter it
moves out from the air outlet. The time of contact
between wet surface of the solid and hot circulated air is
short.
Hence, the amount of water picked up from the wet solid surface in a single pass is very small.
Therefore, 80% of the discharged air which is having some amount of heat, circulated back through
the fan and 20% fresh air after heating introduced to it. In this way, uniform air flow is maintained
over the material and constant temperature is achieved for drying. The process is continued until
the desired moisture content is achieved. At the end of the drying period, the trays are pulled out
from the drying chamber and materials are sent for packing. Sticky materials and granules are
easily dried using tray dryer.
  This operation is mainly carried out for removal of residual moisture (water) or other
organic liquid associated with wet solid.

 When hot air is circulated over wet solids, the moisture from the wet solids evaporates.

 When the vapour pressure exerted by the moisture in solids equals the partial pressure of water
the solid said to have attained equilibrium moisture content.
  Drying can be described by three processes operating simultaneously:
1. Energy transfer from an external source to the water or organic solvent
 Direct or Indirect Heat Transfer

2. Phase transformation of water/solvent from a liquid-like state to a vapour state

 Mass Transfer (solid characteristics)

3. Transfer vapour generated away out of the drying equipment

PERIODS OF DRYING

•Warm up period :A-B

•Constant Rate Period (B-C)
 HT dependent
•Falling rate period (C-D)MT
dependent
 TYPES OF DRYERS

 Dryers can be classified according to:

 Heat transferring methods
 Direct: Fluidised, Tray, Spray, Rotary Dryers,

etc..
 Indirect: Cone, Tumble, Pan Dryers, etc…

 Continuous/ Batch processing

 Continuous: large quantities/small residence time

 Batch: small quantities/ long residence time

Tray Dryer

Rotary Dryer
Vaccum Dryer

Fluidised Dryer
 Spray Dryer

Pneumatic Dryer

Dram Dryer
Band Dryer

Tunnel Dryer
Material balance for moisture:
Moisture removed from solids = Moisture added in air
Moisture in wet solid – Moisture in dry solids = Moisture in outlet air – Moisture in inlet Air

Material balance for Solids:

Solids in wet solids (Feed) = Solids in dried product
 Material Balance for Drying
Let Ss kg/hr be the mass flow rate of dry solids in the wet material admitted to the dryer and let
it be dried from the initial moisture content of X1 to final moisture content X 2, moisture
content can be expressed as kilograms of moisture per kilogram of kg dry solids. The gas flow
rate is Gs kilograms of dry gas/hr and it receives the moisture evaporated from the solids. The
humidity of the gas stream increases from Y1 to Y2 kg moisture per kg dry gas.
Material Balance on drier yields gives
 1. A drier is fed with wet solid to reduce the moisture content from 85% to 15%. The product
leaving the drier is admitted into an oven which further brings down the moisture to 2%. If
the drier can handle 1000 kg of weight solid per day then,
a) Calculate the weight of products leaving the drier.
b) The percentage of original water that is removed from the drier.

Basis : 1000 kg of wet solid admitted to the oven or drier.

Let V1 kg and V2 kg be the amount of water removed in the drier and the oven respectively.
Let x1 and x2 be the weight fraction of moisture in the solid leaving the drier and oven
respectively. Let F be the amount of wet material fed to the drier and xf be the moisture
content in the feed. The total material balance for the drier is
F = S1 + V1 ……….. (a)
 The corresponding moisture free solid
……. (b)

Similarly for oven we can write, ……. (c)

……. (d)

Here F = 1000 kg ,xf = 0.80, x1 = 0.15, x2= 0.02; substituting these values in eq (b) and (d) we get S 1
= 235.29 kg and S2 =204.08 kg

Substitute the values of S1 and S2 in eq (a) and (C) we get the values of V1= 764.71 kg and V2 =
31.21 kg.
 2. 2500 kg of wet solids containing 70% solids by weight are fed to tray dryer where it is dried
by hot air. The product finally obtained is found to contain 1% moisture by weight. Calculate:
(i) Amount (in kg) of water removed from wet solids
(ii) Amount (in kg) of product obtained.
Solution: Basis: 2500 kg of wet solids
Let x be the amount of product obtained, and y be the amount of water removed.
Material balance for Solids:
Solids in wet solids = Solids in product
2500 × 0.70 = x × 0.99
1750 = 0.99x
x = 1767.68 kg
Overall material balance:
F=x+y
2500 = 1767.68 + y
y = 732.32 kg

Therefore, amount of water removed = 732.32 kg

Amount of product obtained = 1767.68 kg.
 3. In the processing of the fish, after the oil is extracted, the fish cake is dried in rotary
drum dryers, finely ground, and packed. The resulting product contains 65% protein. In a given
batch of fish cake that contains 80% water (the remainder is dry cake), 100 kg of water is
removed, and it is found that the fish cake is then 40% water. Calculate the weight of the fish cake
originally put into the dryer.
 MIXING
 MIXING is defined as the unit operation that combines
two or more components together by agitation, shear or
mixers. The final product of mixture contains uniform
distribution of both components of mixture.
 Example of mixers: Blenders, Planetary mixtures, Propellers
etc.
 ADVANTAGES/APPLICATIONS OF MIXING
 To obtain uniform composition of the mixed components.
 To enhance physical & chemical reaction of mixed components.
 To improve dissolution & diffusion of mixture.
 To get true solution after mixing two miscible liquids.

 Mixing is essential to produce emulsion when two immiscible liquids are mixed together with
emulsifying agent.
 To produce a solution after mixing a solid with liquid.
 To produce semisolid products like ointments, suppository after mixing a solid or liquid with
semisolid base.
 Mixing is essential in manufacturing of tablets & capsules to get proper mixture of solid
powders.
PADDLE MIXER
What are Baffles?

Baffles are long, flat plates that are typically attached to the sides of a mixing
tank so that they span the height of the tank from top to bottom, though some
baffle type may not span the full length or they may be attached on the bottom
of the tank. Most often, baffles are required for larger process tanks that are
greater than ten foot in diameter. For smaller tanks, offset mounting can
sometimes provide the desired flow pattern, but baffles still provide surefire
disruption to the mixing vortex. For larger tanks, though, installing baffles is
much more affordable and effective. Offsetting has diminishing effects as the
tank grows in diameter.
 Material Balance

Overall material balance:

Feed stream 1 + Feed stream 2 + Feed stream 3 = Desired product

 1. In a mixing process, two salt solutions having the following compositions are mixed:
1. 25 kg of 20% solution
2. 10 kg of 30% solution.
Calculate the amount and the concentration of the final salt solution.
Solution: Basis: 25 kg of 20% solution and 10 kg of 30% solution.

Overall material balance:

F1 + F2 = P
25 + 10 = P
P = 35 kg
The amount of final salt solution = 35 kg
Material balance for salt:
F1 xF1 + F2 xF2 = P xP
25 × 0.20 + 10 × 0.30 = 35 × xp
5 + 3 = 35 × xp
8 = 35 × xp
xp = 0.2286
Therefore, the concentration of final salt solution is 0.2286.
 Mixer unit:
2. It is required to prepare 1250 kg of a solution composed of 12 wt.% ethanol and 88 wt.% water.
Two solutions are available, the first contains 5 wt.% ethanol, and the second contains 25 wt.%
ethanol. How much of each solution are mixed to prepare the desired solution?
Solution:
1. Ethanol balance

A 5/100 + B(25/100) = M (12/100)

Input = output

0.05 A+ 0.25 B = 0.12 M

A= 150−0.25 B0.05 =3000−5 𝐵………..(𝟏)
2. Water balance

0.95 A+ 0.75 B = 0.88 M =0.88 1250 =1100 0.95 A+ 0.75 B=1100………..(𝟐)

Input = output

Sub. (1) in (2)

0.95(300-5 B) + 0.75 B = 1100
2850 - 4.75 + 0.75 B =1100
4 B =1750 …………………. B = 437.5 kg
Sub. B in (1) : A= 3000 – 5(437.5) = 812.5 kg
3. Checking: Total material balance (T.M.B.), Input = A + B = 437.5 + 812.5 =1250 kg
Output = M= 1250 kg
3. You are asked to prepare a batch of 18.63% battery acid as follows. A tank of old weak
battery acid (H2SO4) solution contains 12.43% H2SO4 (the remainder is pure water). If 200
kg of 77.7% H2SO4 is added to the tank, and the final solution is to be 18.63% H2SO4, how
many kilograms of battery acid have been made? See Figure E8.4.
 Evaporation
 Evaporation is used for concentrating aqueous solution by vaporizing the solvent water
 Typical industrial application of evaporation includes concentration of cane-sugar in a sugar
factory.
 Concentration of Ammonium Sulphate in fertilizer industry

Material Balance for Evaporation

Let F be the feed rate in Kg/h, Xf is the mass fraction of

solute in feed. Let the thick liquor be withdrawn at a rate
of L1 kg/h and concentration of solute in the final product
is x1. Let V1 be the quantity of vapour produced in Kg/h.
Overall material balance gives

Since the vapour produced is free of solute, solute balance gives

 • In a single effect evaporator, with one kilogram of steam condensing in the steam chest one
kg of vapour is produced.

• To reduce the consumption of steam , several evaporator are connected in series to form
multiple effect evaporator system.

By one kg of steam condensing in the first effect, approximately N kg of vapour can be produced,
where N is the number of effects provided. A triple effect evaporator is shown in fig

Overall Material Balance

F = V1 +V2 + V3 + L3

Where V1, V2 and V3 are the vapour produced

in first stage, second and third stage
 Types of evaporators

1. Open kettle or pan Open kettle or pan evaporator

2. Horizontal type natural circular evaporation
3. Vertical type natural circulation evaporation
4. Long tube vertical type evaporator
5. Falling film type evaporator
6. Forced circulation type evaporator
7. Agitated film evaporator
8. Open pan solar evaporator
 Vertical type natural circulation evaporation
Long tube vertical type evaporator

Horizontal type natural circular evaporation

 Forced circulation type evaporator

Falling film type evaporator

Agitated film evaporator

 Industrial applications
• In sugar industry
• In dehydrating milk, which is then used in
many food products
• In fertilizer plants
• Evaporation is not only removing water
• In the production of refined petroleum products, more volatile compounds are
evaporated off to separate the more crude components

Open pan solar evaporator

Method of operation of evaporation
• Single effect evaporator
• Forward feed multiple effect
evaporator
• Backward feed multiple effect
evaporator
• Parallel feed multiple effect evaporator
• Mixed feed multiple effect evaporator
Single effect evaporator

Forward feed multiple effect evaporator

 Single effect Evaporation
• Nearly always the material to be evaporated flows
inside the tubes.
• The boiling liquid is subjected under moderate
vacuum
• Reducing the boiling temp of the liquid increases the temperature difference b/w the steam and the
boiling liquid and thus increases the heat transfer rate in the evaporator.
• When a single evaporator is used, the vapor from the boiling liquid is condensed and discarded.
•Multiple
Simple effect
but doesEvaporation
not use steam effectively.

• If the vapor from one evaporator is fed into the steam chest of a second evaporator and the vapor from the
second is sent to the condenser, the operation becomes double effect.
• The heat in the original steam is reused in the second effect and the evaporation economy increased.
• Also useful one the feed temp is very low, preheating
Backward feed multiple effect evaporator Parallel feed multiple effect evaporator
Overall material balance:
F=V+L

Material balance for solids:

F xF = V xV + L xL

Above material balance equations may be written in terms of quantity in kg or flow rate in kg/h.
 1. A single effect evaporator is fed with 4000 kg/h of weak liquor containing 17% caustic by
weight and is concentrated to get thick liquor containing 40% by weight caustic (NaOH).
Calculate:
(i) Amount (in kg) of water evaporated and
(ii) Amount (in kg) of thick liquor obtained
Solution: Basis: 4000 kg/h of weak liquor

Let x be the amount of water evaporated in kg/h and y be the amount of thick liquor in kg/h.
Overall material balance:
F=V+L
4000 = x + y
x + y = 4000………(i)
Material balance for NaOH:
4000 × 0.17 = x × 0 + y × 0.40
y = 1700 kg/h
x = 2300 kg/h
Therefore, the amount of water evaporated = 2300 kg/h and the amount of thick liquor obtained =
1700 kg/h.
 2. An evaporator system concentrating a weak liquor from 10% to 50% solids, handles
200 kg of solids per hour. If the same system is to concentrate a weak liquor from 5% to 40%,
find the capacity of the system in terms of solids that can be handled per hour assuming water
evaporating capacity to be same in both the cases.
Solution:
Case I Basis: 200 kg/h of solids handling capacity of evaporator.
Let x be the amount of weak liquor in kg/h and y be the amount of thick liquor in kg/h.
Overall material balance: F = V + L
Material balance for Solids:
x × 0.10 = V × 0 + 200
x = 2000 kg/h
Material balance for solids in thick liquor:
y × 0.50 = 200 Amount of water evaporated = 1600 kg/h
y = 400 kg/h Water handling capacity in Case I and Case II is same.
2000 = V + 400 Case II Basis: 1600 kg/h of water evaporated.
V = 1600 kg/h Let x1 be the amount of weak liquor entering in kg/h and y1 be the
amount of thick liquor leaving in kg/h.
Overall material balance:
F=V+L
x1 = 1600 + y1………(i)

Material balance for Solids:

x1 × 0.05 = 1600 × 0 + y1 × 0.40
0.05x1 = 0.40y1
x1 = 8y1………(ii)

Substituting Eq. (ii) in Eq. (i), we get

8y1 = 1600 + y1
7y1 = 1600
y1 = 228.57 kg/h
x1 = 1828.57 kg/h

Hence, Amount of solids in weak liquor = 1828.57 × 0.05 = 91.43 kg/h

The solids handling capacity in Case II is 91.43 kg/h.
 Recycle operations
 The recycling operation with chemical reactions is common in industrial processes.
 This is mainly performed to utilize the valuable reactants to their maximum so that the loss
of the reactants minimized.
 Recycling is returning back a portion of the steam leaving a process unit to the entrance of
the process unit for further processing.

 Recycling operations, commonly encountered in unit operations and unit processes are
performed for:
 Maximum utilization of the valuable reactants.
 Improvement of the performance of the operation.
 Utilization of the heat being lost in the exit stream.
 Better operating conditions of system.
 Improvement of the selectivity of a product.
 Maintaing process rate at a high value.
 Enrichment of a product.
  In distillation operations, a part of the distillate is fed back to column to enrich the product,
so that almost pure product can be obtained.
 In drying operations, a major portion of the hot air leaving the dryer is recirculated to
conserve heat-to utilize the heat being lost in the exit air.
 In absorption towers, better wetting of tower packings is done by recycling part of the exit
solvent stream.
 In chemical reactions, exit catalyst or spent catalyst is returned to the reactor for reuse after
being regenerated.
 For achieving complete conversion, keeping the yield of byproduct to minimum and
effecting reactions at a high rate.

 A Recycle stream is a process stream that returns material leaving a process unit back to the
entrance of the same unit
 Recycle operations are carried out under steady-rate conditions.
 In these operations these is no build-up or material takes place inside the process or in the
recycle stream.
 About the entire process including the recycle stream
–where in the fresh feed is equated with the net product.
 About the junction point 1 at which the fresh feed combines with the recycle stream.
 About the junction the gross product is divided into recycle and net product.
 Involving only process feed and gross product streams.
  The recycling of air/recirculation of air in the drying of solids is shown diagrammatic.

 In a recycling operation: combined feed=Fresh feed +Recycle feed

 The combined feed is a mixture of the fresh feed and the recycle feed/recycle stock
 Gross product= Recycle feed + Net Product
 The gross product is a mixture of the net product and the recycle feed.
 Recycle ratio: It is the ratio of the quantity of recycle feed to the quantity of fresh feed.

 Combined feed ratio: It is the ratio of quantity of mixed feed to the quantity of fresh
feed.
 A continuous fractionating column separates 2000 kg/h of a solution of benzene and toluene
containing 0.5 mass fraction benzene into an overhead product containing 0.97 mass fraction
benzene and bottom product containing 0.03 mass fraction of benzene. A reflux ratio of 2.5 kg
of reflux per kg of product is to be used. Calculate the quantity of top and bottom product in
kg/h.
Solution: Basis: 2000 kg/h of a solution of benzene and toluene.
Now, F = D + W
Also, F xF = D xD + W xW
2000 × 0.5 = D × 0.97 + (2000 – D) × 0.03
1000 = 0.97D + 60 – 0.03D
0.94D = 1000 – 60
D = 1000 kg/h
W = 1000 kg/h
Reflux ratio, R = L/D
L = 2.5 × 1000
or L = 2500 kg/h
Therefore, V = L + D
= 2500 + 1000
= 3500 kg/h.
Purging Operation
Consider, two or more reactants are continuously fed into a reactor to produce the products. Also,
consider one of the reactants is impure. It contains some unwanted material. At the completion of
the reaction, this unwanted material remains in a recycle stream rather than being carried out as a
products. This unwanted material goes on increasing, as the substance would continuously enter the
process along with fresh feed.

In this situation, if nothing were done about the unwanted material, then the attainment of steady
state condition for the process is highly impossible. At this stage, a portion of the recycle stream is
withdrawn and steady state condition is maintained. The withdrawal of recycle stream under this
situation is called purging operation.
 Purging operation
 In this operation, a fraction of the recycle stream is continuously bled-of order to limit the
concentration of inerts to a desired level in the mixed stream.
 In the synthesis of ammonia, some of the gas stream must be purged to prevent build of
argon and methane.

A purge stream is one where a portion of a recycle stream is removed from the system in
order to avoid accumulation of undesired material in a recycled system.
 Purge Ratio: It is the of ratio of the quantity of purge stream to the quantity of recycle feed.
 In manufacture of ammonia, built up of CH4 in recycle loop a certain tolerance limit is
avoided by purging.
 Bypassing operation
 In these operations, a fraction of the feed stream to a process unit is diverted around and
combined with the output.

The operation in which the fraction of the feed

stream is diverted without chemical reaction to
combined with output stream is called bypass. It is
practiced in chemical industry to maintain the
composition and properties of the products. For
example, consider the process of concentrating the
fruit juice. In this process, if the concentration of the
product is higher, then the feed stream is bypassed
to combine with product stream to get the desired
concentration.

One use of bypass is to obtain precise control of the output stream, as when a small wet air stream
bypasses a drier so that the output humidity can be regulated.
 1. Fresh juice contains 14% solids and 86% water by weight and is to be concentrated to contain
42% solids by weight.
In a single evaporator system, it is found that the volatile constituents of juice escape with water
leaving the concentrated juice 56%, with a flat taste. To overcome this problem part of the fresh
juice bypass the evaporator. Calculate:
(i) The fraction of juice that bypass the evaporator
(ii) The concentrated juice produced containing 42% solids by weight.
Solution: Basis: 100 kg of fresh juice fed to process.

Let x be the amount of juice fed to the evaporator in kg; y be the amount of juice bypasses the
evaporator in kg; z be the amount of juice leaving the evaporator in kg; and P be the amount of
concentrated juice obtained in kg.
Overall material balance before entering the evaporator:
x + y = 100………(i)

Material balance for solids over evaporator:

x × 0.14 = z × 0.56
0.14x = 0.56z………(ii)

Overall material balance after leaving the evaporator:

z + y = P………(iii)
Material balance for solids after leaving the evaporator:
z × 0.56 + y × 0.14 = P × 0.42 From Eqs. (iii) and (iv), we get
0.56z + 0.14y = 0.42P………(iv) z+y=P
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get 0.56z + 0.14y = 0.42P
x + y = 100 0.56z + 0.14y = 0.42(z + y)
and 0.14x = 0.56z 0.56z + 0.14y = 0.42z + 0.42y
0.14(100 – y) = 0.56z 0.14z – 0.28y = 0
14 – 0.14y = 0.56z – 0.28y + 0.14z = 0………(vi)
0.14y + 0.56z = 14………(v)
From Eqs. (v) and (vi), we get
Therefore, y = 11.11 kg
z = 22.22 kg
x = 88.89 kg
and P = 33.33 kg.

The amount of juice fed to the evaporator = 88.89 kg

The amount of juice bypasses the evaporator = 11.11 kg
The amount of juice leaving the evaporator = 22.22 kg
The amount of concentrated juice obtained = 33.33 kg.