Structured Query Language

Presented by
Prof. Pooja Mhatre

PRAVIN ROHIDAS PATIL COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
 Topics to be covered
✔ Overview of SQL
✔ Data Definition Language
✔ Integrity Constraints and Types
✔ Data manipulation Language
✔ Data Control Commands
✔ Set and String Operations
✔ Aggregate function
✔ Group-By, having Clause
✔ Views in SQL
✔ Joins
✔ Nested and Complex queries
✔ Triggers
 Overview of SQL
• Structured Query Language is a standard Database language that
is used to create, maintain, and retrieve the relational database.
• SQL is case insensitive. But it is a recommended practice to use
keywords (like SELECT, UPDATE, CREATE, etc.) in capital letters and
use user-defined things (like table name, column name, etc.) in
small letters.
• We can write comments in SQL using “–” (double hyphen) at the
beginning of any line. SQL is the programming language for
relational databases (explained below) like MySQL, Oracle, Sybase,
SQL Server, Postgre, etc. Other non-relational databases (also
called NoSQL) databases like MongoDB, DynamoDB, etc. do not use
SQL.
• Although there is an ISO standard for SQL, most of the
implementations slightly vary in syntax. So we may encounter
queries that work in SQL Server but do not work in MySQL.
 What is Relational
Database?
• A relational database means the data is stored as
well as retrieved in the form of relations (tables).
• RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern
database systems such as MS SQL Server, IBM
DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
• The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects
called tables. A table is a collection of related data
entries and it consists of columns and rows.
Table 1 shows the relational database with only one relation
called STUDENT which stores ROLL_NO, NAME, ADDRESS,
PHONE, and AGE of students

ROLL_NO NAME ADDRESS PHONE AGE

1 RAM DELHI 9455123451 18

2 RAMESH GURGAON 9652431543 18

3 SUJIT ROHTAK 9156253131 20

4 SURESH DELHI 9156768971 18

 Important Terminologies
• These are some important terminologies that are used in terms
of relation.
• Attribute: Attributes are the properties that define a relation.
e.g.; ROLL_NO, NAME etc.
• Tuple: Each row in the relation is known as tuple.
• Degree: The number of attributes in the relation is known as
degree of the relation. The STUDENT relation defined above has
degree 5.
• Cardinality: The number of tuples in a relation is known as
cardinality. The STUDENTrelation defined above has cardinality 4.
• Column: Column represents the set of values for a particular
attribute. The column ROLL_NO is extracted from relation
STUDENT.
 SQL Commands
• SQL Commands are like instructions to a table. It is used to
interact with the database with some operations.
• It is also used to perform specific tasks, functions, and
queries of data.
• SQL can perform various tasks like creating a table, adding
data to tables, dropping the table, modifying the table, set
permission for users.
• SQL Commands are mainly categorized into five
categories:
DDL – Data Definition Language
DQL – Data Query Language
DML – Data Manipulation Language
DCL – Data Control Language
TCL – Transaction Control Language
 Data Definition Language
(DDL)
• DDL or Data Definition Language actually consists of the SQL
commands that can be used to defining, altering, and
deleting database structures such as tables, indexes, and
schemas.
• It simply deals with descriptions of the database schema and
is used to create and modify the structure of database
objects in the database
• DDL Commands :
i. Create
ii. Alter
iii. truncate
iv. drop
v. Rename
 CREATE command
• This command is used to create a new table in SQL.
The user has to give information like table name,
column names, and their datatypes.

• Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name ( column_1 datatype,
column_2 datatype, column_3 datatype, .... );

• Example:
CREATE TABLE Student_info ( College_Id
number(2), College_name varchar(30), Branch
varchar(10) );
 ALTER command
• This command is used to add, delete or change columns in
the existing table.
• The user needs to know the existing table name and can do
add, delete or modify tasks easily.

• Syntax :
Syntax to add a column to an existing table.
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;

• Example :
In our Student_info table, we want to add a new column for
CGPA. The syntax would be as below as follows.
ALTER TABLE Student_info ADD CGPA number;
 TRUNCATE command
• This command is used to remove all rows from the table,
but the structure of the table still exists.

• Syntax:
Syntax to remove an existing table.
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

• Example:
The College Authority wants to remove the details of all
students for new batches but wants to keep the table
structure. The command they can use is as follows.
TRUNCATE TABLE Student_info;
 DROP command
• This command is used to remove an existing table
along with its structure from the Database.

• Syntax :
Syntax to drop an existing table.
DROP TABLE table_name;

• Example :
If the College Authority wants to change their
Database by deleting the Student_info Table.
DROP TABLE Student_info;
 RENAME command
• It is possible to change name of table with or without data
in it using simple RENAME command.
• We can rename any table object at any point of time.

• Syntax:
RENAME TABLE <Table Name> To
<New_Table_Name>;

• Example:
If you want to change the name of the table from
Employee to Emp we can use rename command as
RENAME TABLE Employee To EMP;
 Data Manipulation
Language (DML)
• The SQL commands that deal with the manipulation
of data present in the database belong to DML or
Data Manipulation Language and this includes most
of the SQL statements.
• It is the component of the SQL statement that
controls access to data and to the database.
Basically, DCL statements are grouped with DML
statements.
• DML commands
i. INSERT
ii. UPDATE
iii. DELETE
 INSERT Command
• This command is used to enter the information or values
into a row. We can connect one or more records to a
single table within a repository using this instruction.
This is often used to connect an unused tag to the
documents.

• Syntax:
INSERT INTO <table_name> VALUES ('column_name1'
<datatype>, 'column_name2' <datatype>)

• Example :
INSERT INTO students VALUES ('1', 'Nirmit', 'Gorakhpur');
 UPDATE Command
• This command is used to alter existing table
records. Within a table, it modifies data from one or
more records. This command is used to alter the
data which is already present in a table.

• Syntax:
UPDATE <table_name> SET <column_name =
value> WHERE condition;

• Example:
UPDATE students SET due_fees = 20000 WHERE
stu_name = 'Mini';
 DELETE Command
• It deletes all archives from a table. This command is
used to erase some or all of the previous table’s
records. If we do not specify the ‘WHERE’ condition then
all the rows would be erased or deleted.

• Syntax:
DELETE FROM <table_name> WHERE <condition>;

• Example:
DELETE FROM students WHERE stu_id = '001';
 Advantages & Disadvantages
of DML
Advantages of DML
i. DML statements could alter the data that is contained or
stored in the database.
ii. It delivers effective human contact with the machine.
iii. User could specify what data is required.
iv. DML aims to have many different varieties and
functionalities between vendors providing databases.

Disadvantages of DML
v. We cannot use DML to change the structure of the database.
vi. Limit table view i.e., it could conceal some columns in tables.
vii. Access the data without having the data stored in the object.
viii. Unable to build or erase lists or sections using DML.
 Data Query Language
(DQL)
• DQL statements are used for performing queries on
the data within schema objects.
• The purpose of the DQL Command is to get some
schema relation based on the query passed to it.
• This command allows getting the data out of the
database to perform operations with it.
• When a SELECT is fired against a table or tables the
result is compiled into a further temporary table,
which is displayed or perhaps received by the
program.
• DQL Command
i. SELECT
 SELECT Command
• This command is used to get data out of the database.
It helps users of the database to access from an
operating system, the significant data they need. It
sends a track result set from one tables or more.
• Syntax :
SELECT * FROM <table_name>;

• Example:
SELECT * FROM students;
OR
SELECT * FROM students where due_fees
<=20000;
 Data Control Language
(DCL)
• DCL commands are used to control privileges in the
database.
• The privileges (right to access the data) are
required for performing all the database
operations, like creating tables, views, or
sequences.
• DCL statements are used to perform the work
related to the rights, permissions, and other control
of the database system.
• DCL Commands
i. GRANT
ii. REVOKE
 GRANT command
• This command is used to grant permission to the user
to perform a particular operation on a particular object.
• If we are a database administrator and we want to
restrict user accessibility such as one who only views
the data or may only update the data.
• we can give the privilege permission to the users
according to our wish.
• Syntax
• GRANT privilege_list ON Object_name TO user_name;
 REVOKE command
• This command is used to take permission/access back from
the user.
• If we want to return permission from the database that we
have granted to the users at that time we need to run
REVOKE command.

• Syntax:
REVOKE privilege_list ON object_name FROM
user_name;
 Advantages & Disadvantages
Of DCL commands
Advantages Of DCL commands
i. It allows to restrict the user from accessing data in database.
ii. It ensures security in database when the data is exposed to multiple
users.
iii. It is the wholesome responsibility of the data owner or data
administrator to maintain the authority of grant and revoke privileges to
the users preventing any threat to data.
iv. It prevents other users to make changes in database who have no
access to Database

Disadvantages Of DCL commands

v. Limited Functionality: DCL targets only restriction of access while
other functions like manipulation of data will not be available.
vi. Complex Permission Management: This brings a challenge when it
comes to handling permission since the databases are large in the
current world.
vii. No Data Handling: DCL cannot perform an ‘Insert statement’, ‘Update
statement’ or ‘Delete statement’.
viii. Dependent on Other SQL Commands: It can also be noted that DCL
is only useful when DML and DDL operations have been performed.
 Integrity Constraints
• The Set of rules which is used to maintain the
quality of information are known as integrity
constraints.
• Integrity constraints in a Database Management
System (DBMS) are rules that help keep the data in
a database accurate, consistent and reliable.
• They act like a set of guidelines that ensure all the
information stored in the database follows specific
standards.
• For example:
⮚ Making sure every customer has a valid email
address. Ensuring that an order in the database is
always linked to an existing customer.
Types of Integrity
Constraints
 Entity Integrity Constraints
• Entity integrity constraints state that primary key can never
contain null value because primary key is used to determine
individual rows in a relation uniquely, if primary key contains
null value then we cannot identify those rows.
• A table can contain null value in it except primary key field.
• Key Features of Entity Integrity Constraints
Uniqueness
⮚ The primary key value must be unique for each row in the
table.
⮚ No duplicate entries are allowed in the primary key column.
NOT NULL
⮚ The primary key column cannot contain NULL values, as every
row must have a valid identifier.
 Key Constraints
• Key constraints ensure that certain columns or combinations of columns in
a table uniquely identify each row.
• These rules are essential for maintaining data integrity and preventing
duplicate or ambiguous records.
• Example:

Student_id Name Semester Age

21CSE101 Ramesh 5th 20

21CSE102 Kamlesh 5th 21

21CSE103 Aakash 5th 22

• Types of Key Constraints

21CSE102 Mukesh 5th 20
1. Primary Key Constraints
2. Unique Key Constraints
 Primary Key Constraints
• It states that the primary key attributes are required to be
unique and not null.
• Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot
contain NULL values.
• A table can have only ONE primary key
• This constraint is specified on database schema to the
primary key attributes to ensure that no two tuples are
same.

Student_id Name Semester Age

101 Ramesh 5th 20

102 Kamlesh 5th 21

103 Akash 5th 22

 Primary Key Constraints
The primary key constraint at the column
level:

Syntax:
column name datatype [CONSTRAINT constraint_name]
PRIMARY KEY

Example:
CREATE TABLE Employee ( id number(5), name char(20),
dept char(10), age number(2), salary number(10), location
char(10), CONSTRAINT emp_id_pk PRIMARY KEY (id) );
 Primary Key Constraints
The primary key constraint at the table level

Syntax:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] PRIMARY KEY
(column_name1,column_name2,..)

Example:
CREATE TABLE Employee ( id number(5), NOT NULL,
name char(20), dept char(10), age number(2), salary
number(10), location char(10), ALTER TABLE employee
ADD CONSTRAINT PK_EMPLOYEE_ID PRIMARY KEY (id) );
 Unique Key Constraints
• A Unique Key ensures that the values in a column are
unique, but unlike a primary key, it allows one NULL value.
• Both the UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints provide a
guarantee for uniqueness for a column or set of columns.
• Example:

Employee_ID Email Name

1 [email protected] Aniket Kumar

2 NULL Shashwat Dubey

3 [email protected] Manvendra Sharma

 Unique Key Constraints

Unique key constraint at column level

Syntax:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] UNIQUE

Example:
CREATE TABLE Employee ( id number(5) PRIMARY KEY,
name char(20), dept char(10), age number(2), salary
number(10), location char(10) UNIQUE );
 Unique Key Constraints

Unique key constraint at table level

Syntax:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] UNIQUE(column_name) ;

Example:
CREATE TABLE Employee ( id number(5) PRIMARY KEY,
name char(20), dept char(10), age number(2), salary
number(10), location char(10), CONSTRAINT loc_un
UNIQUE(location) );
 Domain Constraints
• Domain constraints are a type of integrity constraint that
ensure the values stored in a column (or attribute) of a
database are valid and within a specific range or domain.
• In simple terms, they define what type of data is allowed in
a column and restrict invalid data entry.
• The data type of domain include string, char, time, integer,
date, currency etc.
• The value of the attribute must be available in comparable
domains.
• Types of Domain Constraints
1. NOT NULL Constraint
2. CHECK Constraint
 Example
• This table demonstrates domain
constraints in action by enforcing rules
for each column:
Student_Id Name Semester Age
• Student_Id: Must be unique and
follow a specific format
Aniket
like 21CSE###. No duplicates or 21CSE100
Kumar
6th 20
invalid formats allowed.
• Name: Accepts only valid text (no
Shashwat
21CSE101 7th 21
numbers) and cannot be left empty Dubey
(NOT NULL constraint).
• Semester: Allows specific values Manvendr
21CSE102 8th 22
like 5th, 6th, etc., and ensures valid a Sharma

input (e.g., no 10th if not permitted).

• Age: Must be an integer within a 21CSE103
Ashmit
5th 20
Dubey
reasonable range (e.g., 18-30) and
cannot contain invalid data like
negative numbers or text.
 Not Null Constraints

• This constraint ensures that all rows in the database

table must contain a value for the column that is
specified as not null i.e. a null value is not allowed in
that column.
• This constraint is used to ensure that all the rows of the
table contain a definite value for the column that is
specified as not null.
• It means that the null value is not allowed.
 Not Null Constraints
• Syntax:
[CONSTRAINT constraint name] NOT NULL

• Example:
CREATE TABLE employee ( id number(5), name char(20) CONSTRAINT

nm_nn NOT NULL, dept char(10), age number(2), salary number(10), location

char(10) );

OR

CREATE TABLE Persons (

ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
Age int
);
 Check Constraints
• This constraint defines a business rule on a column in
the database table that each row of the table must
follow this rule.
• A check constraint is generally defined on a specific
column or a set of columns to apply the strict limit with
the series of values, it can be added to these columns,
by using a predefined condition.
 Check Constraints
Check constraints at the column level:

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name ( col1 datatype [CONSTRAINT
constraint_name] CHECK (condition), col2 datatype );

Example:
CREATE TABLE employee ( id number(5) PRIMARY KEY,
name char(20), dept char(10), age number(2), gender
char(1) CHECK (gender in ('M','F')), salary number(10),
location char(10) );
 Referential integrity
constraints
• A referential integrity constraint is also known as
foreign key constraint.
• Referential integrity constraints are rules that
ensure relationships between tables remain
consistent.
• The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent
actions that would destroy links between tables.
• A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in
one table, that refers to the PRIMARY KEY in
another table.
• The table with the foreign key is called the child
table, and the table with the primary key is called
the referenced or parent table.
 Referential integrity
constraints

Foreign key constraint at column level:

Syntax:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] REFERENCES
Referenced_Table_name(column_name)

Example:
CREATE TABLE product ( product_id number(5) CONSTRAINT
pd_id_pk PRIMARY KEY, product_name char(20), supplier_name
char(20), unit_price number(10) );

CREATE TABLE order_items ( order_id number(5) CONSTRAINT

od_id_pk PRIMARY KEY, product_id number(5) CONSTRAINT
pd_id_fk REFERENCES, product(product_id), product_name
char(20), supplier_name char(20), unit_price number(10) );
 Referential integrity
constraints
Foreign key constraint at table level:

Syntax:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] FOREIGN KEY(column_name)
REFERENCES referenced_table_name(column_name);

Example:
CREATE TABLE order_items ( order_id number(5) , product_id
number(5), product_name char(20), supplier_name char(20),
unit_price number(10) CONSTRAINT od_id_pk PRIMARY
KEY(order_id), CONSTRAINT pd_id_fk FOREIGN
KEY(product_id) REFERENCES product(product_id) );
 SET Operators in SQL
• SET operators are special type of operators which
are used to combine the result of two queries.

• Operators covered under SET operators are:

i. UNION
ii. UNION ALL
iii. INTERSECT
iv. MINUS
 UNION OPERATION
• The SQL UNION operator combines the results of two or
more SELECT statements into one result set.
• By default, UNION removes duplicate rows, ensuring that
the result set contains only distinct records.

• Syntax:

SELECT columnnames FROM table1

UNION
SELECT columnnames FROM table2;
The First table
ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

The Second table

ID NAME

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

Union SQL query will be:

SELECT
ID
* FROM First UNIONNAME
SELECT * FROM Second;
1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David
 UNION ALL OPERATION
• Union All operation is equal to the Union operation.
• It returns the set without removing duplication and
sorting the data.
• The SQL UNION ALL command combines the result of
two or more SELECT statements in SQL.

• Syntax:
SELECT column_name FROM table1
UNION ALL
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
The First table
ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

The Second table

ID NAME

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

Union All SQL query will be:

SELECT
ID
* FROM First UNION ALL
NAME
SELECT * FROM Secon
1
d; Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David
 INTERSECT OPERATION
• It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The
Intersect operation returns the common rows from
both the SELECT statements.
• In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype
and columns must be the same.
• It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in
ascending order by default.
• Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table1
INTERSECT
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
The First table
ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

The Second table

ID NAME

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

Intersect SQL query will be:

SELECT * FROM First INTERSECT SELECT * FROM Second;
ID NAME

3 Jackson
 MINUS OPERATION
• It combines the result of two SELECT statements.
Minus operator is used to display the rows which
are present in the first query but absent in the
second query.
• It has no duplicates and data arranged in
ascending order by default.

• Syntax:
SELECT column_name FROM table1
MINUS
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
The First table
ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry

3 Jackson

The Second table

ID NAME

3 Jackson

4 Stephan

5 David

Minus SQL query will be:

SELECT * FROM First MINUS SELECT * FROM Second;
ID NAME

1 Jack

2 Harry
 String Functions
• SQL String Functions are powerful tools that allow
us to manipulate, format, and extract specific parts
of text data in our database.

• These functions are essential for tasks like cleaning

up data, comparing strings, and combining text
fields.
 CONCAT() - Concatenate Strings
• The CONCAT() function is used to concatenate
(combine) two or more strings into one string.
• It is useful when we want to merge fields like first and
last names into a full name.

• Query:
SELECT CONCAT('John', ' ', 'Doe') AS FullName;

• Output:
John Doe
 CHAR_LENGTH() / CHARACTER_LENGTH()

• Find String Length

• The CHAR_LENGTH() or LENGTH() function returns
the length of a string in characters.
• It’s essential for validating or manipulating text data,
especially when you need to know how many characters a
string contains.

• Query:
SELECT CHAR_LENGTH('Hello') AS StringLength;

• Output:
5
 UPPER() and LOWER():
• Convert Text Case
• These functions convert the text to uppercase or
lowercase, respectively. They are useful for normalizing
the case of text in a database.

• Query:
SELECT UPPER('hello') AS UpperCase;
SELECT LOWER('HELLO') AS LowerCase;

• Output:
HELLO
hello
 LENGTH()
• Length of String in Bytes
• LENGTH() returns the length of a string in bytes.
• This can be useful for working with multi-byte character
sets.

• Query:
SELECT LENGTH('Hello') AS LengthInBytes;

• Output:
5
 REPLACE()
• Replace Substring in String
• The REPLACE() function replaces occurrences of a
substring within a string with another substring.
• This is useful for cleaning up data, such as replacing invalid
characters or formatting errors.

• Query:
SELECT REPLACE('Hello World', 'World', 'SQL') AS
UpdatedString;

• Output:
Hello SQL
 SUBSTRING() / SUBSTR()
• Extract Part of a String
• The SUBSTRING() (or SUBSTR()) function is used to extract
a substring from a string, starting from a specified
position.
• It is especially useful when we need to extract a specific
part of a string, like extracting the domain from an email
address.
• Query:
SELECT SUBSTRING('Hello World', 1, 5) AS
SubStringExample;
• Output:
Hello
 7. LEFT() and RIGHT():
• Extract Substring from Left or Right
• The LEFT() and RIGHT() functions allow you to extract a
specified number of characters from the left or right side of
a string, respectively.
• It is used for truncating strings for display.

• Query:
SELECT LEFT('Hello World', 5) AS LeftString;
SELECT RIGHT('Hello World', 5) AS RightString;

• Output:
Hello
World
 8. INSTR()

• Find Position of Substring

• The INSTR() function is used to find the position of the first
occurrence of a substring within a string.
• It returns the position (1-based index) of the substring.
• If the substring is not found, it returns 0.
• This function is particularly useful for locating specific characters or
substrings in text data.

• Query:
SELECT INSTR('Hello World', 'World') AS SubstringPosition;

• Output:
7
 9. TRIM()
• Remove Leading and Trailing Spaces
• The TRIM() function removes leading and trailing spaces (or
other specified characters) from a string.
• By default, it trims spaces but can also remove specific
characters using TRIM(character FROM string).
• This is helpful for cleaning text data, such as user inputs or
database records.

• Query:
SELECT TRIM(' ' FROM ' Hello World ') AS TrimmedString;

• Output:
Hello World
 10. REVERSE()
• Reverse the String
• The REVERSE() function reverses the characters in a
string.
• It’s useful in situations where we need to process data
backward, such as for password validation or
certain pattern matching.

• Query:
SELECT REVERSE('Hello') AS ReversedString;

• Output:
olleH
❖ Some Other String Function

⮚ ASCII(): This function is used to find the ASCII value of a character.

Syntax: SELECT ascii('t');

Output: 116

⮚ CONCAT_WS(): This function is used to add two words or strings with a symbol
as concatenating symbol.

Syntax: SELECT CONCAT_WS('_', 'pravin', 'patil', 'coe');

Output: pravin_patil_coe

⮚ FIND_IN_SET(): This function is used to find a symbol from a set of symbols.

Syntax: SELECT FIND_IN_SET('b', 'a, b, c, d, e, f');

Output: 2

⮚ FORMAT(): This function is used to display a number in the given format.

Syntax: SELECT FORMAT(0.981 * 100, 'N2') + '%' AS PercentageOutput;

Output: ‘98.10%’
⮚ LOCATE(): This function is used to find the nth position of the given
word in a string.

Syntax: SELECT LOCATE('for', 'geeksforgeeks', 1);

Output: 6
⮚ LPAD(): This function is used to make the given string of the given
size by adding the given symbol.

Syntax: LPAD('geeks', 8, '0');

Output: 000geeks
⮚ RPAD(): This function is used to make the given string as long as
the given size by adding the given symbol on the right.

Syntax: RPAD('geeks', 8, '0');

Output: ‘geeks000’
⮚ RTRIM(): This function is used to cut the given sub string from the
original string.

Syntax: RTRIM('geeksxyxzyyy', 'xyz');

Output: ‘geeks’
⮚ MID(): This function is to find a word from the given position and of the
given size.
Syntax: Mid ("geeksforgeeks", 6, 2);
Output: for
⮚ POSITION(): This function is used to find position of the first occurrence
of the given alphabet.
Syntax: SELECT POSITION('e' IN 'geeksforgeeks');
Output: 2
⮚ REPEAT(): This function is used to write the given string again and again
till the number of times mentioned.
Syntax: SELECT REPEAT('geeks', 2);
Output: geeksgeeks
⮚ SPACE(): This function is used to write the given number of spaces.

Syntax: SELECT SPACE(7);

Output: ‘ ‘
⮚ STRCMP(): This function is used to compare 2 strings.

Syntax: SELECT STRCMP('google.com', 'geeksforgeeks.com');

Output: -1
 AGGREGATE FUNCTION

• SQL Aggregate Functions are used to perform

calculations on a set of rows and return a single value.
• They are often used with the GROUP BY clause in SQL
to summarize data for each group.
• Various Aggregate Functions

1. Count()
2. Sum()
3. Avg()
4. Min()
5. Max()
 COUNT FUNCTION
• COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a
database table. It can work on both numeric and non-
numeric data types.
• COUNT function uses the COUNT(*) that returns the count
of all the rows in a specified table. COUNT(*) considers
duplicate and Null.
Syntax
COUNT(*)
or
COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
PRODUCT_MAST

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60

Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Item7 Com1 5 30 150

Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50

Item10 Com3 4 30 120

Example: COUNT()
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
Output: 10
Example: COUNT with Example: COUNT() with
WHERE DISTINCT
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM SELECT COUNT ( DISTINCT
PRODUCT_MAST COMPANY) FROM
WHERE RATE>=20; PRODUCT_MAST;
Output: 7 Output: 3

Example: COUNT() with Example: COUNT() with

GROUP BY HAVING
SELECT COMPANY, SELECT COMPANY, COUNT(*)
COUNT(*) FROM FROM PRODUCT_MAST
PRODUCT_MAST
GROUP BY COMPANY
GROUP BY COMPANY;
HAVING COUNT(*)>2;
Output:
Output:
Com1 5
Com1 5
Com2 3
Com2 3
Com3 2
 SUM Function
• Sum function is used to calculate the sum of
all selected columns.
• It works on numeric fields only.

• Syntax
SUM()
or
SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
PRODUCT_MAST

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60

Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Item7 Com1 5 30 150

Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50

Item10 Com3 4 30 120

Example: SUM()
SELECT SUM(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output: 670
Example: SUM() with WHERE
SELECT SUM(COST)
FROM PRODUCT_MAST
WHERE QTY>3; Example: SUM() with
Output: 320 HAVING
SELECT COMPANY,
Example: SUM() with GROUP SUM (COST)
BY FROM PRODUCT_MAST
SELECT SUM(COST) GROUP BY COMPANY
FROM PRODUCT_MAST HAVING SUM(COST)>=17
WHERE QTY>3 0;
GROUP BY COMPANY; Output:
Output: Com1 335
Com1 150
Com2 170
 AVG function
• The AVG function is used to calculate the
average value of the numeric type.
• AVG function returns the average of all non-Null
values.

• Syntax
AVG()
or
AVG( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
PRODUCT_MAST

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60

Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Item7 Com1 5 30 150

Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50

Item10 Com3 4 30 120

Example:
SELECT AVG(COST) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;

Output: 67.00
 MAX Function
• MAX function is used to find the maximum
value of a certain column.
• This function determines the largest value of
all selected values of a column.

• Syntax
MAX()
or
MAX( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
PRODUCT_MAST

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60

Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Item7 Com1 5 30 150

Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50

Item10 Com3 4 30 120

Example:
SELECT MAX(RATE) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
Output: 30
 MIN Function
• MIN function is used to find the minimum value of a
certain column.
• This function determines the smallest value of all
selected values of a column.

• Syntax
MIN()
or
MIN( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
PRODUCT_MAST

PRODUCT COMPANY QTY RATE COST

Item1 Com1 2 10 20

Item2 Com2 3 25 75

Item3 Com1 2 30 60

Item4 Com3 5 10 50

Item5 Com2 2 20 40

Item6 Cpm1 3 25 75

Item7 Com1 5 30 150

Item8 Com1 3 10 30

Item9 Com2 2 25 50

Item10 Com3 4 30 120

Example:
SELECT MIN(RATE) FROM PRODUCT_MAST;
Output:
 GROUP BY clause
• The GROUP BY statement in SQL is used for organizing and
summarizing data based on identical values in specified columns.
• By using the GROUP BY clause, users can apply aggregate functions
like SUM, COUNT, AVG, MIN, and MAX to each group, making it
easier to perform detailed data analysis.
• GROUP BY clause is used with the SELECT statement.
• In the query, the GROUP BY clause is placed after the WHERE
clause.
• In the query, the GROUP BY clause is placed before the ORDER BY
clause if used.
• In the query, the Group BY clause is placed before the Having
clause.
• Syntax:
SELECT column1, function_name(column2)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column1, column2
Example:
SELECT name, SUM(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY name;
 HAVING clause
• The HAVING clause in SQL is used to filter query results based on
aggregate functions.
• Unlike the WHERE clause, which filters individual rows before
grouping, the HAVING clause filters groups of data after
aggregation.
• It is commonly used with functions like SUM(), AVG(), COUNT(),
MAX(), and MIN().
• Works with Boolean conditions (AND, OR)

• Cannot be used without GROUP BY unless an aggregate function is

present.
• Must be placed after the GROUP BY clause and before the ORDER
BY clause (if used).
• Syntax:
SELECT column_name, AGGREGATE_FUNCTION(column_name)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING condition;
SELECT Department, sum(Salary) as Salary
FROM Employee
GROUP BY department
HAVING SUM(Salary) >= 50000;
Difference Between HAVING
and GROUP BY Clauses

Feature HAVING Clause GROUP BY Clause

Filters groups based on Groups rows with identical

Purpose
conditions. values.

Applied after the grouping

Use Case Applied before filtering groups.
process.

Required to filter aggregated Not necessary; groups rows for

Aggregate Functions
data. aggregation.

Position in Query Comes after GROUP BY. Comes before HAVING.

Restricts query output by group Groups the query output based

Effect
conditions. on columns.
 VIEWS
• Views in SQL are a type of virtual table that simplifies how users
interact with data across one or more tables.
• Unlike traditional tables, a view in SQL does not store data on disk;
instead, it dynamically retrieves data based on a pre-defined query
each time it’s accessed.
• SQL views are particularly useful for managing complex queries,
enhancing security, and presenting data in a simplified format.
• A view in SQL is a saved SQL query that acts as a virtual table. It
can fetch data from one or more tables and present it in a
customized format.
• Syntax:
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2…..
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
StudentDetails table: StudentMarks table:
 Rules to Update Views in
SQL:
• Certain conditions need to be satisfied to update a view. If
any of these conditions are not met, the view can not be
updated.
• The SELECT statement which is used to create the view
should not include GROUP BY clause or ORDER BY clause.
• The SELECT statement should not have the DISTINCT
keyword.
• The View should have all NOT NULL values.
• The view should not be created using nested queries or
complex queries.
• The view should be created from a single table. If the view
is created using multiple tables then we will not be allowed
to update the view.
 SQL JOINS
• SQL joins are the foundation of database management
systems, enabling the combination of data from multiple tables
based on relationships between columns.
• A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables,
based on a related column between them.
• Joins allow efficient data retrieval, which is essential for
generating meaningful observations and solving complex
business queries.
• Different types of SQL joins
i. INNER JOIN,
ii. LEFT OUTER JOIN,
iii.RIGHT JOIN
iv. FULL JOIN
v. NATURAL JOIN.
• Query:
SELECT s.roll_no, s.name, s.address, s.phone, s.age,
sc.course_id
FROM Student s
JOIN
StudentCourse sc ON s.roll_no = sc.roll_no;
 INNER JOIN
• The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both the tables as
long as the condition is satisfied.
• This keyword will create the result-set by combining all rows
from both the tables where the condition satisfies i.e value of
the common field will be the same.
• Syntax
SELECT table1.column1,table1.column2,table2.column1,....
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
 INNER JOIN Example
• This query will show the names and age of students enrolled in
different courses.
• Query:
SELECT StudentCourse.COURSE_ID, Student.NAME, Student.AGE
FROM Student
INNER JOIN StudentCourse
ON Student.ROLL_NO = StudentCourse.ROLL_NO;

Output:
 LEFT JOIN
• LEFT JOIN returns all the rows of the table on the left side of the
join and matches rows for the table on the right side of the join.
• For the rows for which there is no matching row on the right
side, the result-set will contain null. LEFT JOIN is also known
as LEFT OUTER JOIN.
• Syntax
SELECT table1.column1,table1.column2,table2.column1,....
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
 LEFT JOIN Example
• In this example, the LEFT JOIN retrieves all rows from
the Student table and the matching rows from
the StudentCourse table based on the ROLL_NO column.
• Query:
SELECT Student.NAME,StudentCourse.COURSE_ID
FROM Student
LEFT JOIN StudentCourse
ON StudentCourse.ROLL_NO = Student.ROLL_NO;
• Output:
 RIGHT JOIN
• RIGHT JOIN returns all the rows of the table on the right side
of the join and matching rows for the table on the left side of
the join.
• It is very similar to LEFT JOIN for the rows for which there is no
matching row on the left side, the result-set will contain null.
• RIGHT JOIN is also known as RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
• Syntax
SELECT table1.column1,table1.column2,table2.column1,....
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
 RIGHT JOIN Example
• In this example, the RIGHT JOIN retrieves all rows from
the StudentCourse table and the matching rows from
the Student table based on the ROLL_NO column.
• Query:
SELECT Student.NAME,StudentCourse.COURSE_ID
FROM Student
RIGHT JOIN StudentCourse
ON StudentCourse.ROLL_NO = Student.ROLL_NO;
• Output:
 FULL JOIN
• FULL JOIN creates the result-set by combining results of
both LEFT JOIN and RIGHT JOIN.
• The result-set will contain all the rows from both tables.
• For the rows for which there is no matching, the result-set will
contain NULL values.
• Syntax
SELECT table1.column1,table1.column2,table2.column1,....
FROM table1
FULL JOIN table2
ON table1.matching_column = table2.matching_column;
 FULL JOIN Example
• This example demonstrates the use of
NAME COURSE_ID
a FULL JOIN, which combines the
results of both LEFT JOIN and RIGHT HARSH 1

JOIN. PRATIK 2
• The query retrieves all rows from
the Student and StudentCourse tabl RIYANKA 2

es. DEEP 3

• If a record in one table does not have a

SAPTARHI 1
matching record in the other table, the
result set will include that record DHANRAJ NULL

with NULL values for the missing fields

ROHIT NULL
• Query:
NIRAJ NULL
SELECT
Student.NAME,StudentCourse.COURSE_I NULL 4
D
FROM Student NULL 5

FULL JOIN StudentCourse NULL 4

ON StudentCourse.ROLL_NO =
Student.ROLL_NO;
 NATURAL JOIN
• Natural join can join tables based on the common columns in the
tables being joined. A natural join returns all rows by matching values
in common columns having same name and data type of columns and
that column should be present in both tables.

• Both table must have at least one common column with same column
name and same data type.
 Natural join Example

• Problem: Find all Employees and their respective departments.

• Solution Query: Select * from Employee NATURAL JOIN Department;
 Nested Queries in SQL
• Nested queries in SQL are a powerful tool for retrieving data
from databases in a structured and efficient manner. They
allow us to execute a query within another query, making it
easier to handle complex data operations.
• A nested query (also called a subquery) is a query
embedded within another SQL query. The result of the inner
query is used by the outer query to perform further
operations. Nested queries are commonly used for filtering
data, performing calculations, or joining datasets indirectly.
• Common SQL Operators for Nested Queries
i. IN Operator
ii. NOT IN Operator
iii. EXISTS
iv. ANY and ALL
\
1. Independent Nested Queries
• In independent nested queries, the execution of the inner query is
not dependent on the outer query. The result of the inner query is
used directly by the outer query. Operators like IN, NOT IN, ANY,
and ALL are commonly used with this type of nested query.
• Example 1: Using IN
Find the S_IDs of students who are enrolled in the courses ‘DSA’ or
‘DBMS’.
• Step 1: Find the C_IDs of the courses:
This query retrieves the IDs of the courses named ‘DSA’ or ‘DBMS’ from
the COURSE table.
SELECT C_ID FROM COURSE WHERE C_NAME IN ('DSA', 'DBMS');

C_ID

C1

C3
• Step 2: Use the result of Step 1 to find the
corresponding S_IDs:
The inner query finds the course IDs, and the outer query retrieves
the student IDs associated with those courses from
the STUDENT_COURSE table

SELECT S_ID FROM STUDENT_COURSE WHERE C_ID IN (

SELECT C_ID FROM COURSE WHERE C_NAME IN ('DSA', 'DBMS') );

S_ID

S1

S2

S4
 2. Correlated Nested
Queries
• In correlated nested queries, the inner query depends on the
outer query for its execution. For each row processed by the
outer query, the inner query is executed.
• The EXISTS keyword is often used with correlated queries.
• Example 2: Using EXISTS
Find the names of students who are enrolled in the course
with C_ID = ‘C1’:
SELECT S_NAME FROM STUDENTS
WHERE EXISTS (
SELECT 1 FROM STUDENT_COURSE SC
WHERE S.S_ID = SC.S_ID AND SC.C_ID = 'C1'
);

S_NAME

RAM

RAMESH
 Advantages of Nested
Queries
• Simplifies complex queries: Nested queries allow us to divide
complicated SQL tasks into smaller, more manageable parts. This
modular approach makes queries easier to write, debug, and
maintain.
• Enhances flexibility: By enabling the use of results from one
query within another, nested queries allow dynamic filtering and
indirect joins, which can simplify query logic.
• Supports advanced analysis: Nested queries empower
developers to perform operations like conditional aggregation,
subsetting, and customized calculations, making them ideal for
sophisticated data analysis tasks.
• Improves readability: When properly written, nested queries
can make complex operations more intuitive by encapsulating
logic within inner queries.
 SQL Trigger
• SQL triggers are a critical feature in database
management systems (DBMS) that provide automatic
execution of a set of SQL statements when specific
database events, such as INSERT, UPDATE,
or DELETE operations, occur.
• Triggers are commonly used to maintain data
integrity, track changes, and enforce business
rules automatically, without needing manual input.
• A trigger is a stored procedure in a database that
automatically invokes whenever a special event in the
database occurs.
• By using SQL triggers, developers can automate tasks,
ensure data consistency, and keep accurate records
of database activities.
 SQL Trigger
• Syntax
create trigger [trigger_name]
[before | after]
{insert | update | delete}
on [table_name]
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
END;

• Types of SQL Triggers

1. DDL Triggers
2. DML Triggers
3. Logon Triggers
 DDL Triggers
• The Data Definition Language (DDL) command events such
as Create_table, Create_view, drop_table, Drop_view, and Alter_table
cause the DDL triggers to be activated. They allow us to track changes in the
structure of the database. The trigger will prevent any table creation, alteration,
or deletion in the database.
• Example:
CREATE TRIGGER prevent_table_creation
ON DATABASE
FOR CREATE_TABLE, ALTER_TABLE, DROP_TABLE
AS
BEGIN
PRINT 'you can not create, drop and alter table in this database';
ROLLBACK;
END;
 DML Triggers
The Data manipulation Language (DML) command events that
begin with Insert, Update, and Delete set off the DML triggers.
DML triggers are used for data validation, ensuring that
modifications to a table are done under controlled conditions.
• Example:
CREATE TRIGGER prevent_update
ON students
FOR UPDATE
AS
BEGIN
PRINT 'You can not insert, update and delete this table i';
ROLLBACK;
END;
 Logon Triggers
• These triggers are fired in response to logon events. Logon
triggers are useful for monitoring user sessions or restricting
user access to the database.
• As a result, the PRINT statement messages and any errors
generated by the trigger will all be visible in the SQL
Server error log.
• Authentication errors prevent logon triggers from being used.
These triggers can be used to track login activity or set a limit
on the number of sessions that a given login can have in order
to audit and manage server sessions.
• Example:
CREATE TRIGGER track_logon
ON LOGON
AS
BEGIN
PRINT 'A new user has logged in.';
END;
 Viewing Triggers in SQL
• If we are working with many tables across multiple databases, we can
use a simple query to list all available triggers in our SQL Server
instance. This is helpful for tracking and managing triggers, especially
when dealing with tables that have similar names across databases.

• Syntax:
SELECT name, is_instead_of_trigger
FROM sys.triggers
WHERE type = ‘TR’;
 BEFORE and AFTER
Triggers
• SQL triggers can be specified to run BEFORE or AFTER the
triggering event.
• BEFORE Triggers: Execute before the actual SQL statement is
executed. Useful for validating data before insertion or updating.
• AFTER Triggers: Execute after the SQL statement completes.
Useful for logging or cascading updates to other tables.
• Example: Using BEFORE Trigger for Calculations
Given Student Report Database, in which student
marks assessment is recorded. In such a schema, create a
trigger so that the total and percentage of specified marks are
automatically inserted whenever a record is inserted. Here,
a trigger will invoke before the record is inserted so BEFORE
Tag can be used.
 Advantages of Triggers
• Data Integrity: Triggers help enforce
consistency and business rules, ensuring that
data follows the correct format.
• Automation: Triggers eliminate the need for
manual intervention by automatically performing
tasks such as updating, inserting, or deleting
records when certain conditions are met.
• Audit Trail: Triggers can track changes in a
database, providing an audit trail of INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETE operations.
• Performance: By automating repetitive tasks,
triggers improve SQL query performance and
reduce manual workload.
End of Chapter - 4