GEOELCTERICAL METHODS

BY DR. ESSAM A. MORSY CAIRO UNIVERSITY

Geophysical Surveys:
Can be divided into two classes Active Versus Passive

Passive geophysical surveys

Involving measurements of naturally occurring fields or properties of the earth. The naturally occurring fields are the:
gravitational field, magnetic field, and EM field.

Active geophysical Surveys.

A signal is injected into the earth and we then measure how the earth responds to this signal. DC resistivity and seismic refraction.

Electrical Methods Overview

The electrical and electromagnetic methods represent the largest class of all geophysical methods Due to the wide field applications.

INTRODUCTION
Several authors pointed out that geoelectrical resistivity method can be used in:
Searching for water bearing formations, Stratigraphic correlation in oil fields, Prospecting for conductive bodies,
conductive-anomalous layers,

Determining the depths of high or low

Determining the depths and approximate shape of resistivityanomalous ore bodies,

Civil engineering and environmental investigations, Cavity detection, and Identifying the depth of sand and gravel deposits.

What are the electrical Properties of rocks depend on:The electrical properties of most rocks in the upper part of the Earths crust are dependent primarily upon
The amount of water in the rock, The salinity of the water, and The distribution of the water in the rock.

Saturated rocks have lower resistivities than unsaturated and dry rocks. The higher the porosity of the saturated rock, the lower its resistivity, and the higher the salinity of the saturating fluids, the lower the resistivity. The presence of clays and conductive minerals also reduces the resistivity of the rock.

Properties are of primary concern in the application of electrical methods

Two properties are of primary concern in the application of electrical methods: 1. The ability of rocks to conduct an electric current, and 2. The polarization which occurs when an electrical current is passed through them (induced polarization).

The resistivity method is used in the study of horizontal and vertical discontinuities in the electrical properties of the ground. It utilizes direct currents or low frequency alternating currents to investigate the electrical properties (resistivity) of the subsurface. A resistivity contrast between the target and the background geology must exist.

Common applications of resistivity surveying

Groundwater exploration

Mineral exploration, detection of cavities

Oil exploration

Waste site exploration

Electrical methods employ a variety of measurements within the Earth.

DC Resistivity Induced Polarization (IP) Self Potential (SP) Electromagnetic (EM) Magnetotelluric (MT)

BASICS Current Flow and Ohm's Law

In 1827, Georg Ohm defined an empirical relationship between the current flowing through a wire and the voltage potential required to drive that current.

It's Resistivity, NOT Resistance

In the case of a wire, resistivity is defined as the resistance in the wire, times the cross-sectional area of the wire, divided by the length of the wire. The units associated with resistivity are thus, ohm - m (ohm-meters).

Resistivity is one of the most variable physical properties.

There is a large range of resistivities, not only between varying rocks and minerals but also within rocks of the same type.

Resistivity Is the reciprocal of conductivity

RESISTIVITY UNITS
It is reasonable to expect that R is directly proportional to the length of the resistor and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the resistor. The conductivity is defined as

Dimensionally, the units of resistivity must be in ohm-m, and conductivity then is:

Dependencies of Earth resistivities:

1. 2. 4. 5. 6. Water , r Salinity , r Porosity , r (water filled) Clays , r Metallic minerals , r

Rock types and resistivity

Igneous rocks highest resistivities Sedimentary rocks tend to be the most conductive due to their high fluid content Metamorphic rocks have intermediate but overlapping resistivities

Most rock-forming minerals are insulators: 1081016 m However, measurement in situ:

sedimentary rocks: 51000 m metamorphic/crystalline rocks: 100105 m

Reason: Rocks are usually porous and pores are filled with fluids, mainly water. As the result, rocks are electrolytic conductors. Electrical current is carried through a rock mainly by the passage of ions in pore waters. Most rocks conduct electricity by electrolytic rather than ohmic processes.

Schematic current flow in soil sample

An increase in the number of ions in soil water (groundwater contamination) linearly decreases the soil resistivity.

The approximate resistivity values of common rock types

Age of the rock and Resistivity

Age of the rock is also important for the resistivity. For example: Young volcanic rock (Quaternary) 10200 m Old volcanic rock (Precambrian) 1002000 m

Current Densities and Equipotentials

How does the current flow through the Earth?

At any point in the medium, the current density is defined as the amount of current passing through a unit area of an equipotential surface.

A First Estimate of Resistivity

V is voltage, I is current, r is resistivity, and r is the distance

this expression is nothing more than Ohm's law with the resistance, R equal to r over 2pr.

If the Earth had a constant resistivity,

Current Flow From Two Closely Spaced Electrodes

A Practical Way of Measuring Resistivity

r1, r2, r3, and r4, as shown in the figure.

Electrode configurations and general case

General Case The general case is considered, where the current sink is a finite distance from the source.

Principle of measurement and potential field for for geoelectric DC surveys

ELECTRODE ARRAYS
There are three commonly used electrode arrays including
1- Wenner array, 2- Dipole-Dipole array, and 3- Schlumberger array

( a ) Schlumberger

I V
A M 2 l 2 L N B

( b ) Wenner

I V
A a M a N a B

( c ) Dipole - Dipole

I
A a L B M

V
N a

Fig. (I-2): Electrode arrays in common use (a) Schlumberger, (b) Wenner, and (c) Dipole- dipole configurations.

Comparison Of Electrode Arrays

Relation between electrode spacing and depth penetration

Depth of penetration is equal to one fifth of electrode spacing

Factors affecting selection of resistivity electrode arrays.

Signal Response Resolution of Horizontal structures Resolution of Steeply dipping structures Sensitivity to surface inhomogeneties

Array

Sounding

Profiling

Wenner Schlumberger

A B

A A

C B

B A

C C

Dipole-Dipole

Generally
The Schlumberger and Wenner arrays are the most common arrays used for different engineering, environmental, and groundwater applications. There are two essential differences between these two types of electrode arrays:

In the Schlumberger array, the distance between the potential electrodes MN is small and is always kept equal to, or smaller than, one-fifth the distance between the current electrodes AB; that is, AB5MN. In the Wenner array, on the other hand, AB is always equal to 3MN,
The potential electrodes in a Schlumberger sounding

are moved only occasionally. In a Wenner sounding, however, they and the four electrode are moved after each measurement.

Knowing the locations of the four electrodes, and by measuring the amount of current input into the ground, i and the voltage difference between the two potential electrodes, DV, we can compute the resistivity of the medium, ra, using the following equation.

In this particular case, regardless of the location of the four electrodes, ra will be exactly equal to the resistivity of the medium. The resistivity computed using the equation given above is referred to as the apparent resistivity.

Depth of Current Penetration Versus Current Electrode Spacing

Current Flow in Layered Media

Variation in Apparent Resistivity: Layered Versus Homogeneous Media

Current Flow in Layered Media Versus Current Electrode Spacing

Consider the earth model shown below: a high resistivity layer over a lower resistivity layer.

Plotting the Resistivity Data

Thus, if we were to compute and plot apparent resistivity for a variety of current electrode spacings while holding the potential electrodes fixed, we would generate a plot similar to that shown below.

A Second Example of Current Flow in Layered Media

As another example of current flow in layered media and how apparent resistivity can vary with varying electrode spacing*, consider the earth model shown below. In this case, a low resistivity layer overlies a higher resistivity halfspace.

Survey Types Overview: Soundings and Profiles

Resistivity Soundings Resistivity Profiling

VES

VES
The relation between electrode spacing and depth penetration

Resistivity Soundings

Electrode Spacings and Apparent Resistivity Plots

Flow Diagram showing the basic Steps of Acquisition, Processing and interpretation of VES data.

Resistivity Profiling
resistivity profiles are resistivity surveys in which the electrode spacing is fixed for all readings. Apparent resistivity is computed for different electrode center points as the entire electrode spread is moved. Usually, the center point is moved along the line of the electrodes, although this does not have to be the case.

Profiling is accomplished by fixing the electrode spacing and moving the entire array. The distance between stations D, is dictated by the lateral resolution desired

Geo-electric Layering
Often the earth can be simplified as consisting of a series of horizontal beds that are infinite in extent. Goal of the resistivity survey is then to determine thickness and resistivity of the layers.

VES Data Plotting Convention

Plot apparent resistivity as a function of the log of some measure of electrode separation. Wenner a spacing Schlumberger AB/2 Dipole-Dipole n spacing

Future? Towed Array

Measurement System
Transmitter Power SupplyCan be DCAC more common Ammeter Metal electrodes Receiver Volt meter Metal electrodes

Field Considerations for DC Resistivity

Good electrode contact with the earth.
Wet electrode location Add NaCl solution or bentonite.

Surveys should be conducted along a straight line whenever possible. Stay away from cultural features whenever possible (power lines, pipes, grounded metal fences,pumps, etc)