Chapter 8

ENTROPY ANALYSIS

McGraw-Hill | 1
 Objectives
• Closely examine the reversible steady–flow work and identify
the primary parameters.
• Assess the effectiveness of different techniques used to
minimize the compressor power input.
• Discuss the best performance for various adiabatic steady–
flow devices and define isentropic efficiency for turbines,
compressors, and nozzles.
• Using an intuitive approach, develop the general entropy
balance relation.
• Perform entropy analysis balance on various processes to
determine entropy generation, which is a measure of
imperfections associated with a process.

2
8-1 REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK

When kinetic and potential

energies are negligible
Figure 8-2
The larger the specific volume,
the greater the work produced
(or consumed) by a steady–
flow device.
For the steady flow of a liquid through a device
that involves no work interactions (such as a
pipe section), the work term is zero (Bernoulli
equation):
Figure 8-1
V22  V12 Reversible work relations for
v( P2  P1 )   g ( z 2  z1 ) 0
2 steady–flow and closed systems.
3
 Ex. 8-1 Compressing a Substance in the Liquid vs.
Gas Phases (isentropically from 100 kPa to 1 MPa)
(a) A saturated liquid initially

v1 v f @100kPa 0.001043m 3 / kg
2
wrev ,in   vdP v1 ( P2  P1 ) (0.001043)(1000  100) 0.94kJ / kg
1

(b) A saturated vapor initially

State 1: P1 = 100 kPa and Saturated vapor

Table A-5 h1 2675.0kJ / kg
s1 7.3589kJ / kg K
State 2: P2 = 1 MPa and s2 = s1
Figure 8-3 Table A-6: h2 = 3194.5 kJ/kg
Schematic and T–s diagram
for Example 8-1. wrev ,in h2  h1 3194.5  2675 519.5kJ / kg 4
Proof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and Consume
the Least Work when the Process Is Reversible
Taking heat input and work output positive:
Actual
Reversible

Figure 8-4
A reversible turbine delivers more work
than an irreversible one if both operate
between the same end states.
Work-producing devices such as
turbines deliver more work, and work-
consuming devices such as pumps
and compressors require less work
when they operate reversibly. 5
8-2 MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK
When kinetic and
potential energies
are negligible

Isentropic (Pvk = constant): adiabatic, no cooling

Polytropic (Pvn = constant): with some cooling

Isothermal (Pv = constant): with max. cooling

Figure 8-5
P–v diagrams of isentropic, polytropic,
and isothermal compression
processes between the same
The adiabatic compression (Pvk = constant) pressure limits.
requires the maximum work and the
isothermal compression (T = constant)
requires the minimum. Why?
6
 When kinetic and
potential energies
are negligible

 k    k 1  1 
1 1
2
p   p2  p1 k 
1/ k  1/ k 1/ k
wcomp ,in C dp C 
1
 k  1  
k  
1 1 1 1
 pv
 2 2
k  1
k

k

p2 k
1

 pv 1 1
k k
p1

k
1


k
 p2v2  p1v1 
k1
k kRT1  T2 
 RT2  T1     1
k1 k  1  T1 
k1
kRT1   P2  k 

   1
k  1   P1  
 

7
 Multistage Compression with Intercooling
The gas is compressed in stages and cooled
between each stage by passing it through a heat
exchanger called an intercooler.

To minimize compression work during two-stage

compression, the pressure ratio across each stage of
the compressor must be the same.

Figure 8-6
P–v and T–s diagrams for a two–
stage steady–flow compression
process. 8
Ex. 8-2 Work Input for Various Compression Processes

(a) k = 1.4
wcomp ,in 263.2kJ / kg

(b) n = 1.3
wcomp ,in 246.4kJ / kg

(c) Isothermal compression

wcomp ,in 189.2kJ / kg
(d) Two-stage compression with intercooling

(n = 1.3)
Px ( P1 P2 )1/ 2 [(100)(900)]1/ 2 300kPa
wcomp ,in 2wcompI ,in 215.3kJ / kg

9
8-3 ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF
STEADY-FLOW DEVICES
The isentropic process involves no irreversibilities and serves as the
ideal process for adiabatic devices.

Two adiabatic devices:

• Same inlet state
• Same exit pressure

Figure 8-8
The isentropic process involves no
irreversibilities and serves as the ideal
process for adiabatic devices.
10
Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines

When kinetic and potential

energies are negligible

Figure 8-9
The h–s diagram for the actual and
isentropic processes of an adiabatic
turbine.

11
Ex. 8-3 Isentropic Efficiency of a Steam Turbine

State 1: 3 MPa and 400 oC (Table A-6)

h1 = 3231.7 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.9235 kJ/kg-K
State 2a: 50 kPa and 100 oC (Table A-6)
h2a = 2682.4 kJ/kg
State 2s: P2s = 50 kPa and s2s = s1
s2 s  s f 6.9235  1.0912
x2 s   0.897
s fg 6.5019
h2 s h f  x2 s h fg 340.54  (0.897)( 2304.7) 2407.9kJ / kg

h1  h2 a 3231.7  2682.4
T   0.667(66.7%)
h1  h2 s 3231.7  2407.9

W a ,out m (h1  h2 a )

Figure 8-10 2000
Schematic and T–s diagram
m  3.64kg / s
3231.7  2682.4
for Example 8-3.
12
Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps

For a compressor

When kinetic and potential

energies are negligible

For a pump

Figure 8-11
The h–s diagram of the actual and
isentropic processes of an
adiabatic compressor.

13
 Isothermal Efficiency of Compressors

A realistic model process for compressors that

are intentionally cooled is the reversible
isothermal process.

Isothermal efficiency

wt: the required work input

to the compressor for the
reversible isothermal case

Figure 8-12
Can you use isentropic efficiency for a
Compressors are sometimes
non-adiabatic compressor?
intentionally cooled to minimize
the work input. Can you use isothermal efficiency for
an adiabatic compressor?

14
Ex. 8-4 Isentropic Efficiency of an Air Compressor
h1 285.14kJ / kg
T1 285K 
s1o 1.65055kJ / kg K

P2 800
s2o s1o  R ln 1.65055  (0.287) ln( ) 2.24735
P1 100
 h2 s 517.14kJ / kg

h2 s  h1
C 
h2a  h1
517.14  285.14
0.80 
h2 a  285.14
h2 a 575.14kJ / kg  T2a 569.6 K

W a ,in m (h2 a  h1 ) (0.2)(575.03  285.14) 58.0kW

Figure 8-13
Schematic and T–s diagram for
Example 8-4. 15
Isentropic Efficiency
of Nozzles

If the inlet velocity of the fluid is small

relative to the exit velocity, the energy
balance is

Then,

Figure 8-14
The h–s diagram of the actual and isentropic
processes of an adiabatic nozzle.

16
Ex. 8-5 Isentropic Efficiency of a Nozzle
(a) The maximum exit velocity
( k  1) / k 0.349 / 1.349
P   110 
T2 s T1  2 s  (950)  814 K
 P1   200 

V2 s  2(h1  h2 s )  2c p (T1  T2 s )
 2(1.11)(950  814)(1000) 549m / s

(b) The exit temperature

h1  h2 a c p (T1  T2 a )
N  
h1  h2 s c p (T1  T2 s )
950  T2 a
0.92   T2 a 825 K
950  814
(c) The actual exit velocity
V22a
 N  2  V2 a   NV22s  (0.92)(549) 2 527 m / s
Figure 8-15 V2 s
Schematic and T–s diagram for
Example 8-5.
17
Figure 8-16
A substance leaves actual nozzles at a higher
temperature (thus a lower velocity) as a result
of friction.

18
8-4 ENTROPY BALANCE

Entropy Change of a
System, ∆Ssystem

When the properties of the

system are not uniform

Figure 8-17
Energy and entropy balances for a
system.
19
Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout
1. Heat Transfer
Entropy transfer by heat transfer:

Entropy transfer by work:

Figure 8-18
Heat transfer is always accompanied by
entropy transfer in the amount of Q/T,
where T is the boundary temperature.

No entropy accompanies work as it crosses the

system boundary. But entropy may be generated
within the system as work is dissipated into a less
useful form of energy.
20
2. Mass Flow
Entropy transfer by mass:

When the properties of the mass

change during the process Figure 8-20
Mass contains entropy as well as energy, and
thus mass flow into or out of a system is always
accompanied by energy and entropy transfer.

21
Entropy Generation, Sgen

Figure 8-22
Entropy generation outside system
boundaries can be accounted for
by writing an entropy balance on
an extended system that includes
the system and its immediate
surroundings.

Figure 8-21
Mechanisms of entropy transfer for a
general system. 22
8-5 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems

The entropy change of a closed system during a process is equal to the

sum of the net entropy transferred through the system boundary by heat
transfer and the entropy generated within the system boundaries.

Noting that any closed system and its surroundings can be treated as
an adiabatic system and the total entropy change is equal to the sum of
the entropy changes of its parts.

23
Ex. 8-6 Entropy Generation in a Wall
Entropy balance for heat transfer through a wall

1035 1035 
Figure 8-23   S gen, wall 0
293 278
Schematic for Example 8-6.
S gen, wall 0.191 W / K

1035 1035 
  S gen,total 0
300 273

S gen,total 0.341 W / K

24
Ex. 8-7 Entropy Generated when a Hot Block is
Dropped in a Lake

or
Figure 8-24
Schematic for Example 8-7.

(a) The entropy change of the iron block

T2 285
Siron m( s2  s1 ) mcavg ln (50)(0.45) ln  12.65kJ / K
T1 500

For the iron block:

Ein  Eout Esystem (b) The entropy change of the lake
 Qout U mcavg (T2  T1 ) Qlake 4838
Slake   16.97 kJ / K
Qout (50)(0.45)(500  285) 4838kJ Tlake 285
25
Ex. 8-7 Entropy Generated when a Hot Block is
Dropped in a Lake (cont’d)
(c) The entropy generation

An extended system includes the iron block and

its immediate surroundings:
Qout 4838
S gen   S system   12.65 4.32kJ / K
Tb 285

or

S gen Stotal S system  S lake  12.65  16.97 4.32kJ / K

26
 Ex. 8-8 Entropy Generation Associated with Heat
Transfer
(a) The entropy change of the water

Q  600
S system    1.61 kJ / K
Tsystem (100  273)

(b) Total entropy generation during this heat

transfer process

Figure 8-25
Schematic for Example 8-8.

Qout 600
S gen   S system   ( 1.61) 0.40 kJ / K
Tb (25  273)

27
Entropy generation associated with a heat transfer
process

Figure 8-26
Graphical representation of entropy generation during a heat transfer process through a finite temperature
difference.
28
8-6 Entropy Balance for Control Volumes

The entropy of a
substance always Figure 8-27
increases (or remains The entropy of a control volume
constant in the case of a changes as a result of mass flow
reversible process) as it as well as heat transfer.
flows through a single-
stream, adiabatic,
steady-flow device. 29
Ex. 8-9 Entropy Generation During a Throttling Process
Entropy balance for a throttling process

State 1: P1 = 7 MPa and 450 oC

h1 3288.3kJ / kg
s1 6.6353kJ / kg K
State 2: P2 = 3 MPa and h2 = h1

Figure 8-29 s2 = 7.0046 kJ/kg-K

Schematic and T–s diagram for
Example 8-9.
s gen  s2  s1 0.3693kJ / kg K

30
Ex. 8-10 Entropy Generation in a Heat Exchanger

For the steam:

State 1: T1 = 35 oC and Saturated vapor
h1 2564.6kJ / kg
s1 8.3517 kJ / kg K
State 2: T2 = 32 oC and Saturated liquid
h2 134.10kJ / kg
s2 0.4641kJ / kg K

Figure 8-30
Schematic for Example 8-10.

Energy Balance Analysis:

Q m steam (h1  h2 ) (10000 / 3600)( 2564.6  134.10) 6751kW

Q 6751
m air   671.7 kg / s
c p (T4  T3 ) (1.005)(30  20)

31
Ex. 8-10 Entropy Generation in a Heat Exchanger
(cont’d)

T
S gen m steam ( s2  s1 )  m air ( s4  s3 ) m steam ( s2  s1 )  m airc p ln 4
T3
303
S gen (10000 / 3600)(0.4641  8.3517)  (671.7)(1.005) ln 0.745kW / K
293

32
Summary
• Reversible steady-flow work
• Minimizing the compressor work
• Isentropic efficiencies of steady-flow devices
• Entropy balance
• Entropy balance for closed systems
• Entropy balance for control volumes

33