Language, Culture,

and Communication:
Pragmatics and
Language Use

Language, Culture, and Society

Saint Rita College, Manila
Speech Act
• Speech acts are communicative actions performed
through utterances.
• Philosopher J.L. Austin and later John Searle
developed the theory of speech acts, which posits that
when we speak, we are not merely conveying
information but also performing actions such as
requesting, apologizing, or promising.
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 • A speech act is an utterance that a speaker
makes to achieve an intended effect.
• Some of the functions which are carried out
using speech acts are offering an apology,
Definition greeting, request, complaint, invitation,
compliment, or refusal.
of Speech • A speech act might contain just one word or
Acts several words or sentences.
• For example, “Thanks” and “Thank you for
always being there for me. I really appreciate
it” both show appreciation regardless of the
length of the statement.
Three Types of Speech Act
According to J. L. Austin (1962), a
philosopher of language and the
developer of the Speech Act
Theory, of acts in every utterance, given
the right circumstances or context.
1. Locutionary act is the actual
act of uttering.
The actual utterance and its
literal meaning.

Example: “The window is open.” (A factual statement

about the window)
“Please do the dishes.”
2. Illocutionary act is the social
function of what is said.
The intended function of the utterance.
This is the act performed in saying
something (e.g., requesting,
commanding, or questioning).

Example: “Could you close the window?” (An indirect

request to close the window)
By uttering the locution “Please do the dishes,” the speaker
requests the addressee to wash the dishes.
3. Perlocutionary act is the resulting act of what
is said. This effect is based on the particular
context in which the speech act was mentioned.
The effect the utterance has on the listener. This
could involve persuading, frightening, or
encouraging the listener to do something.
Example: After hearing “Could you close the window?”, the
listener actually closes the window.

“Please do the dishes” would lead to the addressee washing the

dishes.
 • There are also indirect speech acts which
occur when there is no direct connection
between the form of the utterance and the
intended meaning.
• They are different in force (i.e., intention)
from the inferred speech act.
Indirect • For example, read the following utterance.

Speech • “Can you pass the rice?”

• Inferred speech act: Do you have the
Acts ability to hand over the rice?
• Indirect speech act: Please pass the rice.
• So while the utterance literally asks the
addressee if he or she has the ability to
hand a plate of rice, it actually indirectly
requests the addressee to pass the rice to
the speaker.
 • Austin also introduced the concept of
performative utterances: statements which
enable the speaker to perform something
just by stating it.
• In this manner, verbs that execute the
Performat speech act that they intend to effect are
called performatives.
ives
• A performative utterance said by the right
person under the right circumstances results
in a change in the world.
• Note that certain conditions have to be met
when making a performative utterance.
 • For example, the phrase “I now pronounce
you husband and wife,” when uttered by an
authorized person such as a judge will have
the actual effect of binding a couple in
marriage.
Performat • However, if the same statement is uttered to
ives the same couple in the same place by
someone who is not authorized to marry
them—as in the case of the accompanying
picture, a robot—then there is no effect
whatsoever because a condition was not
met.
 Searle’s Classifications of
Speech Act
As a response to Austin’s Speech
Act Theory, John Searle (1976), a
professor from the University
of California, Berkeley, classified
illocutionary acts into five
distinct categories.
 Assertive

• A type of illocutionary act in which

the speaker expresses belief about
the truth of a proposition.
• Some examples of an assertive act
are suggesting, putting forward,
swearing, boasting, and
concluding.
• Example: No one makes better
pancakes than I do.
 Directive

• A type of illocutionary act in which

the speaker tries to make the
addressee perform an action.
• Some examples of a directive act
are asking, ordering, requesting,
inviting, advising, and begging.
• Example: Please close the door.
 Commissive

• A type of illocutionary act which

commits the speaker to doing
something in the future.
• Examples of a commissive act are
promising, planning, vowing, and
betting.
• Example: Please close the door.
 Expressive

• A type of illocutionary act in which

the speaker expresses his/her
feelings or emotional reactions.
• Some examples of an expressive
act are thanking, apologizing,
welcoming, and deploring.
• Example: I am so sorry for not
helping out in our group projects
and letting you do all the work
 Declaration

• A type of illocutionary act which brings a

change in the external situation.
• Simply put, declarations bring into existence or
cause the state of affairs which they refer to.
• Some examples of declarations are blessing,
firing, baptizing, bidding, passing a sentence,
and excommunicating.
• Example: You are fired!
• By saying that someone is fired, an employer
causes or brings about the person’s
unemployment, thus changing his external
situation.
Politeness
POLITENESS
• Politeness is a fundamental aspect of social
interaction, especially in how speakers
manage face and maintain harmony.
• Politeness strategies, as proposed by
sociolinguists like Penelope Brown and
Stephen Levinson, are ways people soften
their speech to show respect, consideration,
and maintain social balance.
POLITENESS

•Politeness Theory: Brown and

Levinson
•Politeness is closely linked to
the concept of face, which refers
to the self-image a person wants
to project in social interactions.
POLITENESS
• Positive Politeness: Seeks to affirm the listener's
desire to be liked and appreciated.
• It’s about reducing social distance by showing
friendliness and solidarity.
• Example: “You’re really good at this! Could you help
me with my project?”
• Here, the speaker expresses admiration to make the
listener feel valued before making a request.
POLITENESS
• Negative Politeness: Acknowledges the listener’s
desire not to be imposed upon.
• It’s used to show respect and deference, particularly
when making a request that might infringe on the
listener’s autonomy.
• Example: “I’m sorry to bother you, but could you
possibly help me with this?”
• The speaker minimizes the imposition by apologizing
for the interruption.
POLITENESS
• Off-record Politeness (Indirect): The speaker hints
at what they want, leaving room for the listener to
interpret the meaning, which gives the listener more
autonomy to comply or not.
• Example: “It’s a bit cold in here, isn’t it?” (Implying that
the listener should close the window without directly
asking)
POLITENESS
• Bald On-record Politeness: The speaker directly
communicates their need without trying to soften the
impact of their words, often used when urgency or
clarity is required.
• Example: “Close the window!”
Face-Saving
Strategies
Face-Saving Strategies
• Face refers to a person’s self-esteem or sense of
dignity in social interactions.
• People strive to maintain both positive face (the
desire to be liked and admired) and negative face
(the desire to be free from imposition).
• Face-saving strategies are used to avoid
embarrassing situations or mitigate face-threatening
acts (FTAs).
Face-Saving Strategies
• Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs):
• An FTA occurs when something is said or done that
threatens someone’s positive or negative face.
• For example, a direct criticism may damage
someone's positive face, while a command can
threaten their negative face.
Face-Saving Strategies
• Positive Face-Threatening Acts:
• Actions that harm someone’s need for approval and respect.
• Example: Publicly criticizing someone’s work.
• Negative Face-Threatening Acts:
• Actions that impose on someone's freedom to act
independently.
• Example: Commanding someone to do something without
giving them a choice.
Face-Saving Strategies
• Face-Saving Strategies:
• Avoidance: Refraining from performing an FTA altogether to
protect the listener’s face.
• Example: Instead of criticizing a colleague’s mistake directly, you
might choose to remain silent or address the issue privately later.
• Hedging: Softening the impact of the FTA by using cautious
language.
• Example: “I might be wrong, but it seems like there’s a mistake
here.”
Face-Saving Strategies
• Minimization: Downplaying the imposition or FTA.
• Example: “It’s just a small favor, but could you help me move this
table?”
• Apologizing: Acknowledging that the FTA threatens the listener’s
face and expressing regret.
• Example: “I’m really sorry, but I have to ask you to do this task.”
• Offering Choices: Allowing the listener to maintain control over the
situation.
• Example: “Would you prefer to meet today or tomorrow?”