Language and Humans:

1. Nonhuman Communication
2. Features of Human Language
3. Halliday’s Language Function
LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY
SAINT RITA COLLEGE, MANILA
Non-human Communication

• Non-human communication refers to the various ways

animals convey information to each other, which can
include sounds, gestures, chemical signals, body
language, and even visual displays.
• While not as complex or versatile as human language,
animal communication serves essential roles in
survival, reproduction, social interaction, and
environmental awareness.
Non-human Communication
• Non-human communication is any transfer of
information among animals, including mammals,
birds, insects, and marine species.
• It is generally more restricted in scope and
flexibility compared to human language, often
focusing on immediate needs or environmental
cues.
Fun Facts:
• Deathwatch beetle taps its head against the
wood to signal each other.
Fun Facts:
• Red squirrels warn intruders by making a series
of loud rattles and screeches.
Fun Facts:
• Each bottlenose dolphin has a unique whistling
sound that can be used to identify itself.
Fun Facts:
• Peacocks maneuver their tails during courting
rituals.
Fun Facts:
• Male whales communicate with the females using
songs.
Fun Facts:
• Wolves call other wolves by howling.
Fun Facts:
• Elephants talk using their trunks.
Non-human Communication

•Types of Non-Human Communication

Systems:
•A. Vocal Communication:
•Animals produce sounds to convey
messages such as warnings, mating
calls, or signals of distress.
Non-human Communication
• Examples:
• Birdsong: Birds use complex songs to attract mates or
establish territory.
• Different species have distinct calls, some of which are
learned from their parents.
• Primate Calls: Monkeys, such as vervet monkeys,
produce different alarm calls depending on the predator
they spot, indicating whether it’s a snake, eagle, or
leopard.
Non-human Communication
• B. Chemical Communication (Pheromones):
• Many animals, especially insects, use chemical signals to
communicate.
• These pheromones can convey information about territory,
readiness to mate, or danger.
• Examples:
• Ants: Use pheromones to mark trails to food sources, helping
other ants follow the path.
• Bees: Release alarm pheromones when threatened, alerting
other bees to defend the hive.
Non-human Communication
• C. Visual Communication:
• Visual signals include body postures, colors, or
movements that convey messages.
• Examples:
• Peacocks: Males display their vibrant tail feathers to
attract females during courtship.
• Cuttlefish: Can change colors and patterns on their skin
to communicate with others or camouflage themselves
from predators.
Non-human Communication
• D. Tactile Communication:
• Physical touch is used to convey information,
often seen in grooming, nuzzling, or tapping.
• Examples:
• Primates: Engage in grooming as a form of social
bonding and communication.
• Elephants: Use their trunks to caress, guide, or
reassure other members of the herd.
Non-human Communication
• E. Electrical Communication:
• Certain species use electrical signals to
communicate, particularly in water environments.
• Example:
• Electric Fish: Generate electric fields to detect
objects, navigate their environment, or
communicate with others.
Non-human Communication
• E. Electrical Communication:
• Certain species use electrical signals to
communicate, particularly in water environments.
• Example:
• Electric Fish: Generate electric fields to detect
objects, navigate their environment, or
communicate with others.
Non-human Communication
• 3. Characteristics of Non-Human
Communication
• Instinctive vs. Learned:
• Most non-human communication is instinctive and
innate, meaning animals are born with the ability to
produce and understand certain signals.
• However, some species, such as songbirds and
dolphins, exhibit learning in their communication.
Non-human Communication

•Limited Productivity:
•Non-human communication systems have a
fixed set of signals.
•Unlike human language, animals cannot
create an infinite variety of messages by
combining existing signals.
Non-human Communication

•Contextual Specificity:
•Animal communication is often tied to specific
contexts, such as warning signals or mating
calls.
•Animals rarely use their communication
systems to refer to objects or events beyond
the present moment or location.
Non-human Communication

•Lack of Displacement:
•Most non-human communication lacks
displacement, meaning animals typically
communicate about things that are
happening "here and now," rather than
referring to past or future events.
Non-human Communication

•Non-Arbitrary Signals:
•Many animal signals have a direct
relationship with their meaning (e.g., a growl
indicates aggression).
•This contrasts with human language, where
words are mostly arbitrary symbols.
Non-human Communication
• Case Studies of Non-Human Communication
Systems
• A. Honeybee Dance Language:
• When a forager bee finds a rich source of nectar, it
performs a "waggle dance" inside the hive to
communicate the direction and distance of the food
source relative to the sun’s position.
• This complex dance involves a combination of
movements that convey precise information.
Non-human Communication
• Case Studies of Non-Human Communication
Systems
• B. Dolphin Communication:
• Dolphins use a combination of clicks, whistles, and
body language to communicate. Each dolphin has a
unique whistle, often considered its "signature
whistle," which functions like a name.
Non-human Communication
• Case Studies of Non-Human Communication
Systems
• C. Primate Communication:
• Chimpanzees and gorillas use gestures, facial
expressions, vocalizations, and body language to
communicate with each other.
• Research has shown that some apes can even learn
to use human sign language to a limited extent.
Non-human Communication
• Case Studies of Non-Human Communication
Systems
• D. Birdsong and Vocal Learning:
• Birds like the zebra finch and canary learn songs from
older birds, a process similar to how humans learn
language.
• Birdsong serves various functions, from attracting
mates to marking territory.
 Comparison with Human Language:

Feature Human Language Non-Human

Communication
Arbitrariness Symbols (words) have Signals often directly
no inherent connection relate to meanings
Displacement Can refer to past, Limited to the present,
future, and imaginary immediate context
Productivity Infinitely creative and Limited set of fixed
combinable signals
Passed through social Mostly innate, with
Cultural Transmission learning and culture some learned elements
Language and Humans:
1. Nonhuman Communication
2. Features of Human Language
3. Halliday’s Language Function
LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY
SAINT RITA COLLEGE, MANILA
Features of Human Language

•Human language is a unique and complex

system of communication that sets it apart
from non-human communication.
•Linguist Charles Hockett identified several
key features that distinguish human language
from other communication systems.
Features of Human Language
• Arbitrariness:
• There is no inherent connection between the words used in
a language (sounds or symbols) and their meanings.
• For example, there’s nothing about the sound "dog" that
inherently means a furry, four-legged animal.
• This allows languages to be flexible and adaptable, as
different languages can use entirely different words for the
same object or concept.
Features of Human Language
• Duality of Patterning:
• Language operates on two levels: individual sounds
(phonemes) and combinations of sounds (words and
sentences).
• Phonemes themselves are meaningless, but when
combined, they create meaningful units (morphemes, words,
sentences).
• This feature enables the creation of a vast array of words
from a limited set of sounds.
Features of Human Language
• Displacement:
• Human language can refer to things not present in the
immediate environment.
• We can talk about past events, future possibilities, imaginary
concepts, and things that are distant in time and space.
• This ability to communicate about the abstract or
hypothetical sets human language apart from most non-
human communication.
Features of Human Language
• Productivity (or Creativity):
• Human language is infinitely creative.
• It allows speakers to produce and understand an unlimited
number of sentences, including ones they have never heard
before.
• Through the combination and recombination of a finite set of
words and rules, humans can convey new ideas, thoughts,
and concepts.
Features of Human Language
• Cultural Transmission:
• Language is learned and passed down from one
generation to the next within a community or culture.
• It is not purely innate; instead, individuals acquire it
through social interaction and exposure.
• This feature allows for the evolution and diversity of
languages over time.
Features of Human Language
• Discreteness:
• Language is composed of distinct, separate units (such as
sounds, words, and sentences) that can be combined in
different ways.
• Each unit has a clear boundary and retains its identity even
when used in combination with others.
• For example, the sounds /p/ and /b/ are discrete phonemes
that create different meanings in words like "pat" and "bat."
Features of Human Language
• Interchangeability:
• Any human can both produce and understand the
same linguistic signals.
• Unlike some animal communication systems,
where only certain members (e.g., males or
females) can produce specific signals, humans
can use all elements of their language.
Features of Human Language
• Specialization:
• Language signals (spoken or written) are
specifically used for communication.
• Unlike other sounds or movements that may have
practical functions, language serves the sole
purpose of conveying meaning.
Features of Human Language
• Semanticity:
• Words have specific meanings that are
understood by speakers of a language.
• Each word or sign in a language corresponds to a
particular concept or object.
• This feature allows language to convey precise
and complex information
Features of Human Language
• Prevarication:
• Human language can be used to communicate
false, hypothetical, or imaginative statements.
• We can lie, create fiction, or discuss ideas that do
not correspond to reality.
Features of Human Language
• Reflexivity (or Metalinguistic Ability):
• Language can be used to talk about itself.
• Humans can analyze, describe, and discuss
language using language.
• For example, we can explain grammar rules,
define words, and analyze sentences.
Features of Human Language
• Learnability:
• Humans can learn multiple languages, often well
into adulthood.
• This feature shows that language is not
genetically fixed but adaptable and teachable.
Language and Humans:
1. Nonhuman Communication
2. Features of Human Language
3. Halliday’s Language Function
LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY
SAINT RITA COLLEGE, MANILA
Halliday’s Language Function
• M.A.K. Halliday, a renowned linguist, proposed that
language serves multiple functions that help us navigate
various aspects of social interaction and communication.
• According to Halliday's theory, there are seven primary
functions that language performs, particularly evident in
early childhood language development.
• These functions illustrate how language is used to meet
different needs, express ideas, and interact with others.
Halliday’s Language Function
• 1. Instrumental Function
• Purpose: Language is used to express needs,
desires, or wants.
• Example: A child saying, "I want water" or "Give me
the toy."
• Context: It involves using language to get something
done, whether asking for objects, requesting
assistance, or expressing preferences.
Halliday’s Language Function
• 2. Regulatory Function
• Purpose: Language is used to control or influence the
behavior of others.
• Example: Commands like "Stop talking," "Come here," or
"Do this."
• Context: It involves guiding, directing, or managing others'
actions, such as giving instructions, making rules, or
requesting action.
Halliday’s Language Function
• 3. Interactional Function
• Purpose: Language is used to build and maintain social
relationships.
• Example: Greetings like "Hello," small talk like "How are
you?" or using phrases like "Let's be friends."
• Context: This function helps establish and strengthen social
bonds, showing friendliness, camaraderie, or solidarity.
Halliday’s Language Function
• 4. Personal Function
• Purpose: Language is used to express individual identity,
feelings, emotions, or opinions.
• Example: Statements like "I'm happy," "I love this song," or
"I feel tired."
• Context: It allows individuals to share personal experiences,
opinions, and emotions, helping them express their unique
identity.
Halliday’s Language Function
• 5. Heuristic Function
• Purpose: Language is used to explore, learn, or discover
the environment and gain knowledge.
• Example: Asking questions such as "Why is the sky blue?"
or "What’s this?"
• Context: This function is crucial in the learning process, as it
helps individuals seek information, understand the world
around them, and explore new ideas.
Halliday’s Language Function
• 6. Imaginative Function
• Purpose: Language is used to create an imaginary world,
tell stories, or play with ideas.
• Example: Engaging in role-playing, storytelling, or saying,
"Let’s pretend we’re astronauts."
• Context: It involves using language to create fictional
scenarios, express creativity, and engage in fantasy or
imaginative play.
Halliday’s Language Function
• 7. Representational (or Informative) Function
• Purpose: Language is used to convey facts, information, or
knowledge.
• Example: Statements like "The Earth orbits the sun," "My
name is John," or "Dogs are mammals."
• Context: This function is used to provide information,
explain concepts, describe events, or convey facts about the
world.