BITS Pilani SINDHU S

Pilani Campus WILP EEE/ Physics (Pilani)

 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Optoelectronic devices, circuits, and Systems

MELZG512
Lecture 1
18/01/2025
ContacSeesio List of Topic Title Sub-Topics
n
1  Elemental and Compound Semiconductors  Elemental and Compound Semiconductors

2 Electronic Properties of Semiconductors  Wave nature of light, Polarization,

Interference, Diffraction, Light Source
Review of Solid State Physics, Review of
Semiconductor Physics and Semiconductor
Junction Device Junction Theory

3  Optical Processes in Semiconductors  Introduction, Photo

Luminescence, Cathode Luminescence,
Electro Luminescence, Injection
Luminescence,
4  Junction Theory  Introduction, Photo
Luminescence, Cathode Luminescence,
Electro Luminescence, Injection
Luminescence, Injection Luminescence,

5  Lasers: Operating Principles  Lasers: Operating Principles Laser Emission,

Absorption, Radiation, Population Inversion,
Optical Feedback, Threshold condition, Laser
Modes, Classes of Lasers, Mode Locking, laser
applications.

6  Lasers: Structures and Properties  Classes of Lasers, Structure and building,

laser applications.
7  Laser cont
8 Review session

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9  Light Emitting Diodes  LED, Plasma Display, Liquid Crystal Displays,
Numeric Displays

10  Photodetectors  Photo detector, Thermal detector, Photo Devices,

Photo Conductors, Photo diodes, Detector
Performance.

11  Special Detection Schemes  Detector Performance.

12  Solar Cells  Silicon Photonics: Integrated Optical Passive and

Active Component

13  Photonics  Photonics

14  Optoelectronic Modulation and Switching Devices  Solar Cells ,Optoelectronic Modulation and
Switching Devices

15  Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits  Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits

16 Review session

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 Insulators, Conductors and
Semiconductors
Conductors
• Substances that provide an easy path for an electric current.
• All metals are conductors.
• Some metals don’t conduct well.
• For example, Copper is a good conductor, therefore it is widely used
for cables. A non-metal which conducts well is carbon. Salt water is
an example of a liquid conductor.

Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are midway between conductors and insulators.
• Under certain conditions they allow a current to flow easily but under
others, they behave as insulators.
• For example, Germanium and silicon are semiconductors.
• Mixtures of certain metallic oxides also act as semiconductors. These
are known as thermistors. The resistance of thermistors falls rapidly as
their temperature rises. They are therefore used in temperature –
sensing devices
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 Differences between Conductors
and Semiconductors
In conductors, electric conduction is possible In semiconductors, at low temperature, there is no
electric conduction in them. However, at high-
temperature, electric conduction becomes possible
Conductors have a very large number of current Semiconductors have neither a very large number nor a
carriers free electrons very small number of current carriers free electrons
The resistance of conductors increases with The resistance of semiconductors decreases with
increase in temperature, i.e., their temperature increase in temperature, i.e., the temperature coefficient
coefficient of resistance is positive of resistance is negative

On adding impurities, the conductivity in Whereas, on adding impurities, the conductivity in

conductors decreases semiconductors increases
Conductors, has a very small resistivity Semiconductors has resistivity nearly 0.1-ohmmeter
which is very high as compared with the first one
.In conductors, the forbidden energy gap in semiconductors, the forbidden energy gap between
between the conduction band and valence band the conduction band and valence band is nearly 1 eV
is nearly zero

Examples of Conductor: Metals, a Human Body, Earth etc. Examples of

Semiconductor: Silicon, Germanium etc.

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SEMICONDUCTORS

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Range of Conductiveness

The semiconductors fall somewhere midway between

conductors and insulators.
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Range of Conduciveness

Semiconductors have special electronic properties which

allow them to be insulating or conducting depending on
their composition.
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1824

John Jacob Berzelis

First to isolate and identify silicon.

Remains little more than a scientific curiosity until the
1900s. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
1833

Resistance (Ohms)

Michael Faraday
Temperature (ºC)

Discovers that electrical resistively decreases as

temperature increases in silver sulfide.
This is the first investigation of a semiconductor.
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1873

William Smith

Discovers the photoconductivity of selenium and invents

a selenium photometer.
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1874

Ferdinand Braun

The first semiconductor device was born.

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Radio receivers required a device called
a rectifier to detect signals.

He used the rectifying properties of the galena crystal, a

semiconductor material composed of lead sulfide, to
create the cat's whisker diode for this purpose.
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1927

Bloch
Sommerfeld

Applied quantum mechanics to solids, helping explain

the conduction of electricity in semiconductors.
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Scientific Principle of
Conduction
Valence Band

The highest occupied energy band is called the valence band.

Most electrons remain bound to the atoms in this band.

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Conduction Band

The conduction band is the band of orbitals that are high

in energy and are generally empty.
It is the band that accepts the electrons from the valence
band.
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Energy Gap

The “leap” required for electrons from the Valence Band

to enter the Conduction Band.
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 Conductors

In a conductor, electrons can move freely among these

orbitals within an energy band as long as the orbitals are
not completely occupied.
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 Conductors

In conductors, the valence band is empty.

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Conductors

In conductors, energy band is relatively small or

does not exist

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Insulators

In insulators, the valence band is full.

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Insulators

In insulators, the energy gap is relatively large.

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 Semiconductors

In semiconductors, the valence band is full but the

energy gap is intermediate.
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Semiconductors

Electron needs only a small jump to enter the Conduction

Band.

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Band Diagrams

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Silicon

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Silicon is a very common element, the main element in
sand & quartz.

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Silicon’s Arrangement

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Silicon

• At 0 K, all the covalent bonds is complete.

• Therefore, no free electron is available in the crystal for the

conduction of current.

• Hence, silicon crystal behaves as an insulator at 0 K.

• At room temperature, a covalent bond breaks, and an

electron becomes free.

• The electron which leaves the bonds is called a free

electron and the vacancy created in the covalent bond due
to the release of the electron is called a hole.

• If the potential difference is applied across an intrinsic

semiconductor, electrons will move towards the positive
terminal, while the holes will drift toward the negative
terminal
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Holes and Electrons in
Semiconductors
Holes and electrons
• types of charge carriers accountable for the flow of current in
semiconductors.
• Holes (valence electrons) are the positively charged electric charge
carrier
• electrons are the negatively charged particles. Both electrons and
Mobility of Electrons and Holes
holes are equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity.
•In a semiconductor, the mobility of electrons is higher than that of
the holes. It is mainly because of their different band structures and
scattering mechanisms.
•Electrons travel in the conduction band whereas holes travel in the
valence band.
•When an electric field is applied, holes cannot move as freely as
electrons due to their restricted movement.
•The elevation of electrons from their inner shells to higher shells results
in the creation of holes in semiconductors. Since the holes experience
stronger atomic force by the nucleus than electrons, holes have lower
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The mobility of a particle in a semiconductor is more
if;

•The effective mass of particles is lesser

•The time between scattering events is more

For intrinsic silicon at 300 K, the mobility of electrons

is 1500 cm2 (V∙s)-1 and the mobility of holes is 475
cm2 (V∙s)-1.

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The bond model of electrons in silicon of valency 4 is shown below.
• Here, when one of the free electrons leaves the lattice position,
it creates a hole.
• This hole thus created takes the opposite charge of the
electron and can be imagined as positive charge carriers
moving in the lattice.

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Band Theory of Semiconductors

The introduction of band theory happened during the quantum revolution

in science.
Walter Heitler and Fritz London discovered the energy bands.

•electrons in an atom are present at different energy levels.

• When we try to assemble a lattice of a solid with N atoms, then each
level of an atom must split up into N levels in the solid.
•This splitting up of sharp and tightly packed energy levels forms Energy
Bands.
•The gap between adjacent bands representing a range of energies that
possess no electron is called a Band Gap

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Conduction Band and Valence Band in
Semiconductors
Valence Band:
•The energy band involving the energy levels of valence electrons is known
as the valence band.
• It is the highest occupied energy band.
• When compared with insulators, the bandgap in semiconductors is
smaller.
• It allows the electrons in the valence band to jump into the conduction
band on receiving any external energy.

Conduction Band:
• It is the lowest unoccupied band that includes the energy levels of
positive (holes) or negative (free electrons) charge carriers.
• It has conducting electrons resulting in the flow of current.
• The conduction band possesses a high energy level and is generally
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FERMI LEVEL

What is Fermi Level in Semiconductors?

 Fermi level (denoted by EF) is present between the valence and

conduction bands.
 It is the highest occupied molecular orbital at absolute zero.
 The charge carriers in this state have their own quantum states
and generally do not interact with each other.
 When the temperature rises above absolute zero, these charge
carriers will begin to occupy states above Fermi level.

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 Types of Semiconductors

Semiconductors can be classified as:

•Intrinsic Semiconductor and Extrinsic

In intrinsic semiconductors,

• current flows due to the motion of free electrons as well as holes.

• The total current is the sum of the electron current Ie due to
thermally generated electrons and the hole current Ih
Total Current (I) = Ie + Ih

For an intrinsic semiconductor, at finite temperature, the probability of

electrons to exist in the conduction band decreases exponentially with
increasing bandgap (Eg)

n = n0e-Eg/2.Kb.T
Where,
•Eg = Energy bandgap
•K = Boltzmann’s constants BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
The Lattice of Pure Silicon Semiconductor at Different Temperatures

•At absolute zero Kelvin temperature: At this temperature,

the covalent bonds are very strong and there are no free electrons and
the semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator.
•Above absolute temperature: With the increase in temperature
few valence electrons jump into the conduction band and hence it
behaves like a poor conductor.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

 The conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved by introducing a

small number of suitable replacement atoms called IMPURITIES.
 The process of adding impurity atoms to the pure semiconductor is called
DOPING.
 Usually, only 1 atom in 107 is replaced by a dopant atom in the doped
semiconductor.

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Extrinsic semiconductor
N-Type semiconductor and P-Type semiconductor

N TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Mainly due to electrons

Entirely neutral
I = Ih and nh >> ne

Majority – Electrons and Minority – Holes

•When a pure semiconductor (Silicon or Germanium) is doped by pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb, Bi)
• , four electrons out of five valence electrons bonds with the four electrons of Ge or Si.
•The fifth electron of the dopant is set free.
• Thus, the impurity atom donates a free electron for conduction in the lattice and is called “Donar“.

•Since the number of free electron increases by the addition of an impurity, the negative charge carriers
increase. Hence, it is called n-type semiconductor.

Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the donor atom becomes an immobile positive ion.
• As conduction is due to a large number of free electrons, the electrons in the n-type semiconductor are
the MAJORITY CARRIERS and holes are the MINORITY CARRIERS.

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 P-Type semiconductor
• Mainly due to holes
•Entirely neutral
I = Ih and nh >> ne

• Majority – Holes and Minority – Electrons

• When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga ) then, the
three valence electrons of the impurity bonds with three of the four valence electrons of
the semiconductor.

This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These impurity atoms which are
ready to accept bonded electrons are called “Acceptors“.

With the increase in the number of impurities, holes (the positive charge carriers) are
increased. Hence, it is called a p-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the acceptors become an immobile negative ion.
As conduction is due to a large number of holes, the holes in the p-type semiconductor are
MAJORITY CARRIERS and electrons are MINORITY CARRIERS.
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Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

Pure semiconductor Impure semiconductor
Density of electrons is equal Density of electrons is not
to the density of holes equal to the density of holes
Electrical conductivity is Electrical conductivity is
low high
Dependence on temperature Dependence on temperature
only as well as on the amount of
impurity
No impurities Trivalent impurity,
pentavalent impurity

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Importance of
Semiconductors
Some advantages of semiconductors that makes them highly useful
everywhere.

• They are highly portable due to the smaller size

• They require less input power
• Semiconductor devices are shockproof
• They have a longer lifespan
• They are noise-free while operating

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Intrinsic Silicon

A silicon crystal is different from an insulator.

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Intrinsic Silicon

At any temperature above absolute zero, there is a finite

probability that an electron in the lattice will be knocked
loose from its position.

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Intrinsic Silicon

The electron in the lattice knocked loose from its position

leaves behind an electron deficiency called a "hole".

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Current Flow

If a voltage is applied, then both the electron and the

hole can contribute to a small current flow.

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Doping

Doping (adding an impurity) can produce 2 types of semi-

conductors depending upon the element added.

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P-Type Doping

In P-type doping, boron or gallium is the dopant.

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P-Type Doping

Boron and gallium each have only three outer electrons.

When mixed into the silicon lattice, they form

"holes" in the lattice where a silicon electron has
nothing to bond to.

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P-Type Doping

The absence of an electron creates the effect of a positive

charge, hence the name P-type.
• Holes can conduct current.
• A hole accepts an electron from a neighbor, moving the hole over a
space. P-type silicon is a good conductor.

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N-Type

In N-type doping, phosphorus or arsenic is added to the

silicon in small quantities.

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N-Type

• Phosphorus and arsenic each have five outer electrons, so they're out of
place when they get into the silicon lattice.

The fifth electron has nothing to bond to, so it's free

to move around.

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N-Type

• takes only a very small quantity of the impurity to create enough free
electrons to allow an electric current to flow through the silicon. N-type
silicon is a good conductor.

Electrons have a negative charge, hence the name

N-type.

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P-N Junction

p-n junction is created by joining together two

pieces of semiconductor, one doped n-type, the
other p-type.

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P-N Junction

In the n-type region there are extra electrons and in the p-type
region, there are holes from the acceptor impurities .

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P-N Junction

In the p-type region there are holes from the acceptor

impurities and in the n-type region there are extra electrons.

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P-N Junction

When a p-n junction is formed, some of the electrons from the n-region
which have reached the conduction band are free to diffuse across the
junction and combine with holes.

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P-N Junction

Filling a hole makes a negative ion and leaves

behind a positive ion on the n-side.

A space charge builds up, creating a depletion

region.

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P-N Junction

This causes a depletion zone to form around the junction (the

join) between the two materials.
This zone controls the behavior of the diode .

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Forward Biasing

Forward biasing the p-n junction drives holes to the junction

from the p-type material and electrons to the junction from
the n-type material.

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Forward Biasing

At the junction the electrons and holes combine so that

a continuous current can be maintained.

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Diode

A diode is the simplest possible semiconductor device.

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Reverse Biasing

The application of a reverse voltage to the p-n junction will

cause a transient current to flow as both electrons and holes
are pulled away from the junction.

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Reverse Biasing

When the potential formed by the widened depletion layer

equals the applied voltage, the current will cease except for
the small thermal current.

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When forward-biased, a small amount of voltage is necessary
to get the diode going. In silicon, this voltage is about 0.7
volts.

This voltage is needed to start the hole-electron

combination process at the junction.

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Diode Characteristic

When reverse-biased, an ideal diode would block all

current.

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Diode Characteristic

Usually, the breakdown voltage is a lot more voltage

than the circuit will ever see, so it is irrelevant.

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 Properties of Semiconductors
 Semiconductors can conduct electricity under preferable conditions or
circumstances.
 This unique property makes it an excellent material to conduct
electricity in a controlled manner as required.

 Unlike conductors, the charge carriers in semiconductors arise only

because of external energy (thermal agitation).
 It causes a certain number of valence electrons to cross the energy gap
and jump into the conduction band, leaving an equal amount of
unoccupied energy states, i.e. holes.
 Conduction due to electrons and holes is equally important.

• Resistivity: 10-5 to 106 Ωm

• Conductivity: 105 to 10-6 mho/m
• Temperature coefficient of resistance: Negative
• Current Flow: Due to electrons and holes

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Practice questions
1. Why does the Resistivity of Semiconductors go down with Temperature?
2. Some Important Properties of Semiconductors
3. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of conduction electrons is 7 × 10 19 m3. Find the total
number of current carriers in the same semiconductor of size 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 mm
4. The energy gap of silicon is 1.14 eV. What is the maximum wavelength at which silicon will begin
absorbing energy?
5. The energy of a photon of sodium light (λ = 589 nm) equals the bandgap of semiconducting
material. Find:The minimum energy E required to create a hole-electron pair. (5890 A 0),The value
of E/kT at a temperature of 300 K.
6. Pure Silicon semiconductor at 500K has equal electrons and holes (1.5 × 10 16 m-3). Doping by
Indium increases nh to 4.5 × 1022 m-3. Calculate the type and electron concentration of doped
semiconductor
7. Why the valence band in semiconductors is partially empty and the conduction band is partially
filled at room temperature?
8. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of conduction electrons is 7 × 10 19 m3. Find the total
number of current carriers in the same semiconductor of size 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 mm.
9. Why the valence band in semiconductors is partially empty and the conduction band is partially
filled at room temperature?

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