Class 7

01/03/2025
Photodiode Summary
What is a photodiode?
A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into
either current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that
they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or
packaged with a window or optical fibre connection to allow light to
reach the sensitive part of the device.
Many diodes designed for use specifically as a photodiode will also use
a PIN junction rather than the typical PN junction
Explain the following
Polarity
• Some photodiodes will look like the picture to the right, that is, similar to
a light emitting diode.
• They will have two leads, or wires, coming from the bottom.
• The shorter end of the two is the cathode, while the longer end is
the anode.
• Under forward bias, current will pass from the anode to the cathode,
basically following the arrow. Photocurrent flows in the opposite
direction.
Principle of operation

• A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of

sufficient energy strikes the diode, it excites an electron thereby creating
a mobile electron and a positively charged electron hole.
• If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one
diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction
by the built-in field of the depletion region.
• Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode,
and a photocurrent is produced.
Photovoltaic mode

• When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent

out of the device is restricted and a voltage builds up.
• The diode becomes forward biased and "dark current" begins to flow
across the junction in the direction opposite to the photocurrent.
• This mode is responsible for the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis
for solar cells—in fact, a solar cell is just an array of large area
photodiodes.
Photoconductive mode

• In this mode the diode is often (but not always) reverse biased.
• This increases the width of the depletion layer, which decreases the
junction's capacitance resulting in faster response times.
• The reverse bias induces only a small amount of current (known as saturation
or back current) along its direction while the photocurrent remains virtually
the same. The photocurrent is linearly proportional to the illuminance .
• Although this mode is faster, the photovoltaic mode tends to exhibit
less electronic noise.
• Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure to regular photodiodes,
• but they are operated with much higher reverse bias.
• This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied by avalanche
breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which increases
the effective responsivity of the device.

• Phototransistors also consist of a photodiode with internal gain.

• A phototransistor is in essence nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased in a
transparent case so that light can reach the base-collector junction.
• The electrons that are generated by photons in the base-collector junction are injected into the
base, and this photodiode current is amplified by the transistor's current gain β (or h fe
 Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include
Responsivity
The ratio of generated photocurrent to incident light power, typically expressed in A/W when used in
photoconductive mode. The responsivity may also be expressed as a quantum efficiency, or the ratio of the
number of photo generated carriers to incident photons and thus a unit less quantity.

Dark current
The current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is operated in photoconductive mode. The dark
current includes photocurrent generated by background radiation and the saturation current of the
semiconductor junction.
Dark current must be accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make an accurate optical power
measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a photodiode is used in an optical communication system.

Noise-equivalent power
(NEP) The minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the rms noise current in a
1 hertz bandwidth.
• The related characteristic detectivity (D) is the inverse of NEP, 1/NEP; and
• the specific detectivity ( D) is the detectivity normalized to the area (A) of the photodetector,
.
• The NEP is roughly the minimum detectable input power of a photodiode.

When a photodiode is used in an optical communication system, these parameters contribute to the sensitivity of
the optical receiver, which is the minimum input power required for the receiver to achieve a specified bit error ratio.
Applications
• P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as photoconductors, charge-
coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.
• Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke detectors, and
the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions.
• In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim the display when it's
dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather than photodiodes, although in principle either
could be used.
• Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry. They
generally have a better, more linear response than photoconductors.
• They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed
tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay). They are also
used in blood gas monitors.
• PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction diodes, and hence are often used
for optical communications and in lighting regulation.
• P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity is
needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for
applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision equipment and laser rangefinding
Advantages compared to photomultipliers:
• Excellent linearity of output current as a function of incident light
• Spectral response from 190 nm to 1100 nm (silicon), longer wavelengths with other semiconductor materials
• Low noise
• Ruggedized to mechanical stress
• Low cost
• Compact and light weight
• Long lifetime
• High quantum efficiency, typically 80%
• No high voltage required

Disadvantages compared to photomultipliers:

• Small area
• No internal gain (except avalanche photodiodes, but their gain is typically 10²–10³ compared to up to 10 8 for the
photomultiplier)
• Much lower overall sensitivity
• Photon counting only possible with specially designed, usually cooled photodiodes, with special electronic
circuits
• Response time for many designs is slower
 Photovoltaics Devices/Solar cells
Fundamental concepts and novel systems

First practical photovoltaic cell:

Chapin, Fuller, Pearson,
Bell Labs, 1954: 6% efficiency
THANKS TO
GARY H O D E S
& many others
 Solar cell is made of 3 parts:
1) Protective layer – usually glass, must be
transparent
2) n-layer – semiconductor rich in electrons
3) p-layer – semiconductor deficient in
electrons
Junction represents where n- and p-layers
touch

-images via Phys.org and the BBC

usually glass
protective layer
n-layer
semiconductors junction
p-layer
 How do solar cells work?
Solar cells transform Sunlight
sunlight into electricity (solar energy)
Electricity When light of the right energy
Photovoltaic effect (the energy between the ground
and excited states) hits a
material, it transfers energy to an
electron (absorption). We can use
this electron
this extra energy to produce
reflection now has more electricity. When absorption of
energy When this happens light happens in a material, it’s
e -
inside a material, it is
called the photovoltaic called the photovoltaic effect
excited state
effect

transmission light There are 3 ways material can interact

absorption
with light:
absorption
1)Reflection where light bounces off the
e- e- e- e- material
ground state
2)Transmission where light goes
through the material
3)Absorption where light interacts with
the material
 How do solar cells work?

e-

n-layer
n-layer junction
junction
p-layer
p-layer

e-

e- e- e-

+ + +
e- e- e-
How a solar cell works:
1) Sunlight is absorbed and excited an electron from the p-layer to the n-layer
2) The extra electrons in the n-layer move through the circuit to recombine with the
positive charges left in the p-layer, completing the circuit
What are solar cells made from?

Most common material = silicon

protection layer First developed for the space program
P-doped Si Highest efficiencies of any type of solar cell
junction Long lifetimes – very stable

B- or Ga-doped Si Requires thick layers of Si  relatively expensive -n-layer is typically

phosphorus-doped Si to
Rigid & brittle  limits potential applications give an electron-rich
material
Single crystal - 26% Polycrystalline - 20% Amorphous - 13.4%
-p-layer is typically
boron- or gallium-doped
Si to give an electron-
deficient layer
 What do you think some challenges with solar energy might be?

They don’t work They don’t use

at night or in all the Sun’s
cloudy weather energy Some possible answers:
incoming solar -the sun isn’t always shining
radiation -the sun changes position in the
1000 watts/sq meter sky throughout the day
-how to use all the sun’s light
-making durable solar panels

Storage 800 W 200 W

heat electricity
 New materials to replace Si

Organic Perovskites
cells

Dye-sensitized cells Quantum dots Single crystal Si

11.9 15.6 16.6 23.7% 26.1%

% M%
a x i m u%m e ffi c i e n c y
 Perovskites
Perovskites are materials with a
specific structure called ABX3
Perovskite refers to materials
with a specific structure
-usually made of
Advantages
— Maximum efficiency = 23.7% lead, a halide (Cl, Br, I), and a
positively charged atom or
— Variable band gaps molecule
Methyl ammonium lead triiodide  can be designed for specific-poor stability: do not react
perovskite. Image from NREL.
applications well to moisture, high heat, or
extended irradiation
— Very efficient absorber of high-energy
light
 can be combined with other low-
energy absorbers
Disadvantages
— Most use lead = extremely toxic
— Poor stability
Image from Solliance.
 Quantum Dots
4 nm 5 nm 6 nm QDs are tiny
particles only a few
2 nm 3 nm
nanometers wide
-nanometer = 1 billionth of a meter = 1x10^-
9 m = 1x10^-7 cm = 0.0000001 cm

-for solar cells, includes PbS, PbSe, CdS, CdSe

-the various colors of QD could mean solar

cells of different colors
Image via University of Rochester.
-small size means more QDs can fill the same
Image via Wikimedia Commons.
Advantages area as an Si solar cell but will produce more
Disadvantages
—Most use cadmium or lead power over the same area
— Band gaps change with QD size -i.e. the same mass of QDs will
 can be designed for specific = extremely toxic
produce more power than the same mass of
applications — Degrades when exposed Si
— small size means good power to to water
weight ratio and UV light
 Organic PV Cells
OPVs can be made of any organic (carbon-
containing) molecule that absorbs light and
can donate/accept electrons

Image via TCI America.

Image via BBC.
Advantages Disadvantages
— Flexible! — Low efficiency (at least so far)
 can be deposited on different
— Not very stable
materials
 no effective protective coatings yet
— Many possible combinations
— Inexpensive to produce
• flexible – could incorporate into clothes
• -transparent – windows, glasses!
• -the many possible combinations of organic molecules mean OPVs can be
designed for different applications
• -Solution-processable (meaning organic molecules can be dispersed to form
an ink) means it is relatively cheap to produce large quantities of these PVs
 Dye-sensitized solar cells
examples of dyes
DSSCs are made of three parts: dye,
TiO2, and liquid electrolyte

Advantages
— Easy to make
e-
— Semi-flexible and semi-transparent
— Work in low-light
 potentially could be used indoors
e - e-

e- e- Disadvantages
e -
e-
e- electrolyt — Low efficiencies (so far)
e -
e
e-
— Requires expensive materials like Pt
ligh — Uses liquids
t  makes it difficult to use in all weather
TiO2 dye Pt
How a DSSC works:
• 1) Sunlight is absorbed by the dye molecules
• 2) The sunlight gives energy to electrons which move from the dye to the TiO2
• 3)The electrons move between TiO2 molecules and through the circuit, reaching the Pt electrode
• 4)The electrons are then transferred to the electrolyte which transfers them back to the dye molecules,
completing the circuit

• -(top left) Examples of dye molecules using Ru metal

• -easy to make
• -semi-flexible & semi-transparent
• -also fairly robust – performs better at higher temperatures

• -uses expensive materials like Pt for counter electrode or Ru for dye

• -requires liquid component  makes it difficult to use in all weather
 Solar cell generations

Si (crystalline) cells : 1st generation cells

(thin film) CdTe, CIGS, α-Si : 2nd generation cells

Dye cells, organic cells and related ones : 3rd generation cells

There are newer ones and ‘generation number’ becomes fuzzy at this stage
 GaAs

“the single crystal divide”

CdTe

Organic
 The Photovoltaic (PV) effect:
Generalized picture

Absorber High
energy
one electron energy
state
e-
• Metastable high and low energy
states

contact
contact • Absorber transfers charges into
high and low energy state
p+ • Driving force brings charges to
Low
energy contacts
state
• Selective contacts
space

(1) cf. e.g., Green, M.A., Photovoltaic principles. Physica E, 14 (2002)

11-17
 Fundamental losses in single
junction solar cell
e-
high energy photon – partial loss
Energy
e-

hn
hn useable photo -
p- type
voltage ( qV)
n- type

h+ low energy photon – total loss

space
The principle of nanostructured cells

light absorption
depth contact
EC
hole e-
selective
e- h+ contact
e- electron
EV selective
h+
h+ contact

light-absorbing absorber contact

semiconductor
electron conductor hole conductor

electron (hole) selective contact; conductor; transport medium

Advantage of high surface area:

Allows the use of locally thin absorber and therefore poor quality
(wider range of) absorbers
 Organic photovoltaic cells OPV

Two problems of OPV:

1. Low diffusion lengths of electron/hole

2. Low dielectric constant – high binding energy

h+
e-
Two problems of OPV:
1. Low diffusion lengths of electron/hole
2. Low dielectric constant and high effective mass – high binding energy

e-

h+
effective mass of
electrons and holes e-
e-
me4 e- e-
Binding energy of H atom = = 13.6 eV
2h2ε2
Binding energy of exciton ? h+
dielectric constant h+ h+
of material

Wannier-Mott excitons – extended; low BE few/tens meV

Frenkel excitons – localized; high BE hundreds meV
Notwithstanding these problems, OPV is now at

~ 11% conversion efficiency

Stability still not good enough for practical use, but improving

Advantages: Cheap (in capital and in energy)

Roll-to-roll manufacturing (large scale possible)

 Solution - use high surface area semiconductor
Early attempts increased surface area by roughening electrode - several times increase

Breakthrough: porous, nanocrystalline TiO2

Made by sintering a colloid or suspension of TiO2
O’Regan, B.; Grätzel, M. Nature 1991, 353,
737.

Dye molecule bonded to TiO2

Only a monolayer of dye at most on each TiO2
 Change the dye in a DSC to a
semiconductor
• Semiconductor-sensitized solar cells (quantum dot cells)
• ETA (extremely thin absorber) solar cells

Semiconductor does not have to be a single monolayer – typically few nm to few tens nm

Variations:
Hole conductor – liquid or solid (if solid, commonly called ETA cell)

Semiconductor may be in the form of quantum dots – increase in Eg

 Hybrid Organic-Inorganic Perovskites
most common one- CH3NH3PbI3

Preparation

CH3NH2+HI  CH3NH3I(solid) in methanol, at 0˚C

CH3NH3X + PbI2  CH3NH3PbI3 in organic solvent

Solution processable, easy to scale

Heat at ca. 100ºC

Another +: very high VOC for CH3NH3PbI3 EG = 1.55 eV, VOC up to 1.2 V
Solar cell
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_q6LRgKpTw
Phototransistor
• A phototransistor is a type of photosensor that operate just like a
photodiode but it has an amplification factor.
• It amplifies the current between us terminals using the intensity of light. It is
more sensitive than a photodiode.
Phototransistor was invented In 1950 at bell telephone laboratories by Dr. John
Northrup Shive. it was operated by light rather than electrical current.
A phototransistor has only two terminals,
an emitter and collector.

The symbol of the phototransistor is very similar to any normal transistor

except for the base terminal.
Instead of the base terminal, there are two pointing arrows representing
incident light as shown in the figure below.
Terminals of Phototransistor
• A phototransistor is available in both two leads and three leads designs.
• Two terminals Phototransistor include collector and emitter.
• The three-terminal design includes an optional base terminal that allows it
use like any normal transistor in no light conditions. It allows it to bias it at a
required operating poin

For identification, the collector is longer than the emitter. Also, the emitter has a flat spot at the to
Features of Phototransistor

• It is a light-sensitive transistor that amplifies the current generated from light

energy.
• It converts light energy into electrical energy and also amplifies it.
• It has two or three terminals depending on its design.
• It has a similar structure to a transistor except it has a light-sensitive base region.
• It is connected only in forward bias.
• It has a current gain that amplifies the current generated from light.
• Due to the amplification factor, it has a very high sensitivity
• It requires a power source to operate.
• It is mainly used for detecting or sensing light intensity
Difference between Photodiode and
Phototransistor
Photodiode Phototransistor

Photodiode is a semiconductor component that converts light Phototransistor is a semiconductor component that amplifies the
energy into electrical energy. current generated from light energy.

It is basically a light-sensitive PN junction diode with an opening It is basically a light-sensitive BJT transistor with an exposed
or exposed junction for light. base region.

It is made from 2 layers of semiconductor material It is made from 3 layers of semiconductor material

It is made of a single PN junction. It has two PN junctions to form either NPN or PNP structure.

It has only two terminals i.e. anode and cathode. It has either two or three terminals depending on the design.

It can be configured in forward and reverse bias. It is used in forward bias.

It only converts light energy into electrical current. It also amplifies the current using an external source.

It has less sensitivity as compared to a phototransistor. Due to the amplification factor, it is more sensitive.

It has a quick response time. It has a relatively slower response time.

It does not require a power source to operate. It requires a power source with proper biasing to operate.

It generates both current and voltage. It only generates current.

It is cheap. It is expensive than photodiode.
Photodiode is used for converting solar energy into electrical
Phototransistors are used for sensing light in light sens
power using solar cells.
Photomultiplier

Basic PMT Structure

1. Photocathode
2. Electron Optical Input System
3. Electron Multiplier
4. Anode
The Photocathode
Photocathode converts incident photons to photoelectrons
Emitted electron energy given by Einstein’s photoelectric affect:

Must reach minimum frequency for equation to be applicable

Photocathode Values
1. Quantum Efficiency:

2.Radiant Cathode Sensitivity:

Photocathode Values
Or:

For Units in Amperes/Watts

Or: Luminous Cathode Sensitivity

(Not Recommended)
Photocathode Values
• Energy Loss given by Escape Depth

• Most materials η(λ): 0.1%

• Semiconductors η(λ): 10%-30%
• Negative Electron Affinity Metals η(λ): ≤80%
Electron Optical Input System
• Two electrodes guide electrons to first dynode using an electric field
• Focusing electrode on the sides of the PMT
• Accelerating electrode by first dynode
• Two requirements:
1) As efficient as possible
2) Uniform time from cathode to dynode
Electron Multiplier Section
• Secondary emission electrodes (dynodes)
• Each has secondary emission factor δ
• Like photocathode, but with incident electrons and E-field
• Dynode material requirements:
1) High δ
2) Stability of emission even with current
3) Low thermionic emission
 Use 10-14 stages with total Gain ≈ 10^7
 Use negative electron affinity metals
Electron Multiplier Section
 Dynode Configurations:
a) Venetian Blind
b) Box and Grid
c) Linear focused
d) Side-On Configuration
Electron Multiplier Section
e) Microchannel Plate
 Electron Multiplier Section:
The Single Electron Spectrum

• Fluctuations created by variable nature of secondary emissions,

variations in δ, different electron transit times
• Plotting many multiplier responses to single electron give total gain
fluctuations
• Linear focused have lower fluctuations
• Venetian blind have higher fluctuations
Operating Parameters

• Gain of dynode determined by voltage:

• Assuming voltage divided equally:

Gives Min voltage

Operating Parameters
 By minimizing the function for minimum V:

We find:
Although minimum voltage is ideal for minimal noise,
this is not typical due to need for a smaller transit
time
 Gain vs Supply Voltage:
Voltage Dividers
• Series of resistors regulate each voltage
• Variable resistors used for fine adjustment
• Bleeder current must be much greater than anode
current:

• Bleeder current maintained 100 times anode current

for 1% linearity
• In pulse mode, decoupling capacitors or Zener diodes
are used
Voltage Dividers
• Dynodes high voltage must be negative relative to photocathode
• If positive, photocathode should be grounded, minimizing noise but
also complicating anode setup
• If negative, anode can be grounded and coupled with other detector
electronics, but cathode must then be well insulated
Linearity
• Current must be transferred entirely from each dynode for
proportionality
• Total current saturation depends on voltage
• Initial formation of space charge at electrodes is swept away at
increased voltage
• High resistance of photocathode can allow large currents of
photoelectrons to change potential; important to use sufficient
voltage
Pulse Shape
• PMT can be considered current generator in parallel with a resistor
and capacitor
• Assuming input is exponentially decaying light:
Pulse Shape
• Then gives equation of form:

• Which, solved for V(t), gives solution:

• For τ<< scintillator decay constant, decay time is

accurately produced: Current mode
• For τ>>scintillator decay constant, amp and decay time
both heightened: Voltage mode
Time Response
• Two main factors affect time resolution :
1) Fluctuations in electron transit time
2) Fluctuations due to statistical noise
• The electron optical input system accelerates central
electrons much faster. Cathode or field can be fixed.
• Transit time spread: if we have
Noise:
Dark• Dark
Current
current arises from:
1) Thermionic emission
2) Leakage currents
3) Radioactive contamination
4) Ionization phenomena
5) Light Phenomena
 Thermionic dark current noise given by:

lowering temperature lowers thermal noise

Noise:
Dark Currents
• Leakage currents lowered by a reduced atmosphere
• Only small current from radioactive materials
• Gas ions can be accelerated toward dynodes, also small amount of
current (Afterpulsing)
• Dark currents create no more than a few nanoamperes
Noise: Statistical
• Number of photoelectrons and secondary electrons
fluctuate with time: shot noise or Schottky Effect
• Physical limit of photocathode determines
fluctuations in emitted photoelectrons
• For PMT under constant illumination, rms deviation
emitted photoelectrons given by:

• Extent of total deviation best measured by single

electron spectrum
Environmental Factors:
Light and B-Fields
• Ambient light, even without high voltage, increases dark current over
time
• Magnetic fields interfere with Anode current and path of electrons in
electron optical input section
• Have least influence when oriented parallel to axis of PMT, and PMT is
shielded with
mu-metal and iron screen
Environmental Factors:
Temperature
• Small contribution to dark current
• Cathode sensitivity: variation of 0.5%/degree
between 25 and 50 degrees
• Surface materials of dynodes can be affected and can
vary gain by a few tenths of a percent per degree
Kelvin, although varies between PMTs
Gain Stability
• Two types of gain change:
1) Drift- Variation over time under constant illumination level
2) Shift- Sudden current shift drastically changes gain
 Several methods of measuring PM output peaks from the same
source at different time frequencies can be used to find drift and shift