Chapter 1.

Cell

What is cell?
 Cell is a small section that holds all of the
.

biological equipments necessary to keep an

organism alive
 The general characteristic of cells is their
microscopic size
In 1665 Robert Hooke observed a slice
of a dead cork by the use of his
microscope & coined the term CELL.
Called the “animalcules,” meaning little
1.1 The Cell Theory
In 1838, botanist Matthias Schleiden made a
careful study of plant tissues
Developed the first statement of the cell
theory. He stated that
All plants “are aggregates of fully
individualized, independent, separate beings,
namely the cells themselves.”
cont’d…
 In 1839, Theodor Schwann reported that all
animal tissues also consist of individual cells.

 In 1855, German medical doctor named

Rodulph Vichow observed under the
microscope cells dividing.
 Cont’d
 The cell theory, in its modern form, includes
the following three principles:
1. All organisms are composed of cells (one
or more)
 The cell runs metabolism and
 Posses hereditary materials

2. Cells are the smallest units of living

things (structural and functional units of
life)
 cont’d…

3. Cells arise only by division from a

previously existing cell.
 Biologists have concluded that no additional
cells are originating spontaneously at present.
 Rather, life on earth represents a continuous
line of descent from those early cells.
(But the first cell didn’t come from pre-
existing cell)
 1.2 Types of Cells
Based on level of their complexity, cells can
be categorized as either prokaryotic or
eukaryotic.
1.2.1. Prokaryotes
 Prokaryotes are the simplest cells (organisms)
 Prokaryotic cells are small,
 Consist of cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma
membrane encased within a rigid cell wall,
 Cont’d
.

Prokaryotes have some features like

A. Strong Cell Walls
 Most prokaryotic cells like bacteria are
encased within a strong cell wall
The cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan

- which consists of carbohydrate

(polymer of modified sugar) matrix cross-
linked by short polypeptide units.
No eukaryotes possess cell walls with this
Cont’d…

Bacteria can be classified into two types

based on differences in their cell walls
This is determined by the Gram stain,
through the procedure called Gram staining
technique
Based on this procedure bacteria can be
classified into two types
1. Gram positive bacteria
2. Gram negative bacteria
 Cont’d…
1. Gram-positive bacteria
Gram-positive bacteria have a thick
peptidoglycan and single-layer of lipid
under the cell wall
It retains a violet dye from the Gram stain
procedure and appears blue or purple.
2. Gram-negative bacteria
Gram-negative bacteria’s cell wall is
multilayered (lipid rich)
Cont’d…
Cont’d…
B. Rotating Flagella
 Flagella are long, threadlike structures
protruding from the surface of a cell
 Major function of flagellum is locomotion
 Some prokaryotes use flagellum (plural,
flagella) for feeding
Cont’d…

C. Simple Interior Organization

Interior organization is simple and has few
simple structures like ribosome
Most have no membrane-bounded
organelles
Prokaryotic cells do not have true nucleus
The entire cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cells
is one unit with no internal support
structure
Fig. 1 A generalized structure of bacterial
cell
 1.2.2 Eukaryotic cell
 Eukaryotic cells are far more complex than
prokaryotic cells.
 The hallmark of the eukaryotic cell is
compartmentalization.
 The interiors of eukaryotic cells contain
numerous membrane-bounded structures or
organelles
 With in the organelles multiple biochemical
processes can proceed simultaneously and
 Cont’d…
 Eukaryotic cells are found in protists,
fungi, animals and the plantae
Key Characteristics of Eukaryotes
A. Multicellularity
 Except the protists, organisms containing
eukaryotic cells are multi-cellular
 Distinct types of cells, tissues, and organs
can be differentiated within the complex bodies
of multi-cellular organisms, with functional
divisions within the body
 Multicellular organism can do many things, like
Cont’d…

B. Sexuality
The sexual cycle characteristic of eukaryotes is
union of male and female gametes.
Mitosis - producing a cell with two sets of
chromosomes, and
Meiosis - cell division producing daughter
cells with one set of chromosomes (half of
that of the mother cell).
tructure of an example of a eukaryotic cell
 Table 1 Comparison between prokaryotes
and eukaryotes
Feature 1.2 Prokaryotic cell 1.3 Eukaryotic cell
Organism Bacteria & Blue green Protists, Fungi, Plants & Animals
s algae
.

Cell size 0.5-10µm in diameter 10-100µm in diameter

Form Unicellular Multi-cellular except Protista
/level
Origin First life form (3.5mil. Evolved from prokaryotes
yrs ago) (1.2mil. Yrs ago)
Cell Binary fission, no Mitosis, meiosis, or both
division spindle
Chromoso Free single circle of Multiple; linear DNA-protein
mes DNA in the cytoplasm, complex contained in the
no nucleus nucleus
Organelle Few Many, membrane bounde &
s specialized
Cell walls Present Present (cellulose), chitin in
(protein+polysaccharid fungi, none in animal cells
 1.3 Parts of Plant and Animal
Cells
• Contents of plant and animal cells
 surrounded by plasma or cell membrane
 contain sub cellular structures called
organelles, within the cytoplasm.
1. Plasma membrane
Encloses the cell and separates its contents
from its outer surroundings.
The plasma membrane is a phospholipid
bilayer.
Scheme of PM showing its phospholipid
arrangement
Cont’d…

Protein molecules bath within the semi-

fluid lipid layers (fluid mosaic).
Carbohydrates found attached on
membrane surface to lipid (glycolipid) &
proteins (glycoprotein)
PM performs various activities:
• Transport proteins: help molecules and ions
move across the plasma membrane (inward
and outward transport is controlled by
Cont’d…

• Contain receptor proteins : induce

changes within the cell when they come in
contact with specific molecules (binding sites)
such as hormones
• Identify markers: This is especially
important in multi-cellular organisms, whose
cells must be able to recognize each other as
they form tissues and also to avoid alien
substances
Fig. 3 Structure of plasma membrane
Fig. 4 Traffic of Substances across
the Plasma Membrane
2. Nucleus
 Nucleus (nucleoid in prokaryotes) lying within
cytoplasm.
 Nucleus is a specialized organelle, which
contains the hereditary material i.e. DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid).
 Nucleus contains three parts

A. Membranes - Outer membrane with nuclear

pores &
- Inner membrane
Fig. 5 The nucleus
3. Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is filled up by cytosol, which is a
gelatinous and semitransparent fluid.
All the organelles of the cell are present in
cytoplasm.
This is the site for Cell division,
glycolysis and other cellular activities .
The cytoplasm contains the chemical
wealth of the cell: the sugars, amino
acids, and proteins
 4. Mitochondria
• Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are
known as 'the powerhouse of the cell‘, B/s
• they are responsible for breaking down of
complex carbohydrate and the sugar
molecules to simpler forms to release
energy (aerobic respiration)
• In addition, mitochondria are crucial for

 Cell signaling
Cell cycle:
Fig. 6 Mitochondria
5. Endoplasmic Reticulum
 The term endoplasmic means “within the
cytoplasm,” and the term reticulum is Latin for
“a little net.”
 It is connected to the double-layered nuclear
envelope, providing a pipeline between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs
 It manufactures, processes, and transports
chemical compounds for use inside and outside
Cont’d…
A. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
B. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
A. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
 It is called so b/s contains ribosome on its
surface and hence manufactures proteins for
export.
 Proteins to be exported contain special amino
acid sequences called signal sequences
(Neurotransmitter).
Cont’d…
B. Smooth ER: Organizing Internal Activities
Regions of the ER with no bound ribosome are
referred to as smooth ER.
The membranes of the smooth ER contain
many embedded enzymes.
Enzymes anchored within the ER, for example
carry out extensive lipid synthesis
In the liver, the enzymes of the smooth ER are
involved in the detoxification of drugs.
Fig. 7 Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 6. Golgi bodies

• Golgi bodies are named for Camillo Golgi

Italian.
• Collectively the Golgi bodies are referred to as
the Golgi apparatus.
• The Golgi apparatus functions in the collection,
packaging, and distribution of molecules
(receiving, storing, sorting, modifying &
shipping) .
• A Golgi body has a front and a back, with
Cont’d…

• The front, or receiving end, is called the

cis face, and is usually located near ER.
• The back end also called trans face.
• ER-synthesized molecules then pass
through the channels of the Golgi
apparatus until they reach the back,
discharging end (trans face).
Cont’d…
• Glycoproteins and glycolipids made in the ER
collected at the ends of the Golgi bodies, in
flattened stacked membrane folds called
cisternae (Latin, “collecting vessels”).
• Periodically, the membranes of the cisternae
push together, pocketing small, membrane
bounded secretory vesicles containing the
glycoprotein and glycolipid molecules.
• These vesicles then move to other locations in
Fig. 8 Golgi
apparatus
7. Ribosome
Made up of 60% RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) and
40% protein.
Play an important role in protein translation
Ribosome is literally considered as the main
site of protein synthesis
8. Vacuole
Vacuoles are large membrane-bound
compartment in plant cells
Store water and compounds.
They also function as excretory and secretory
organelles.
The membrane surrounding a vacuole is called
tonoplast.
A mature plant cell has a single vacuole at the
near central position of the cell, contributing
9. Chloroplast
 Chloroplasts are organelles responsible for
photosynthetesis
 A chloroplast may contain hundred or more
grana, and each granum may contain from a
few to several dozen disk-shaped structures
called thylakoids.
 On the surface of the thylakoids are the
light-capturing photosynthetic pigments.
 Surrounding the thylakoid is a fluid matrix
 Outer membrane

Inner membrane

Granum

Stroma
Thylakoid

Fig. 10 Chloroplast
10. Cell Wall

• Cell wall is the outermost tough and rigid

layer, which comprises cellulose,
hemicellulose, pectin and at other times,
lignin. As expected,
• Cell well remains connected with the cell
walls of other cells.
• The prime functions of cell wall are;
- Protection,
- Structural support and
 11. Lysosomes
• Lysosomes sometimes called Intracellular
Digestion Centers
• They contain high levels of degrading
enzymes, the enzymes catalyze rapid
breakdown of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids,
and carbohydrates.
• Throughout the lives of eukaryotic cells,
lysosomal enzymes break down old
organelles, recycling their component
Cont’d…

• Lysosomes maintaining a low internal pH

by pumping protons
• Lysosomes that do not maintain internal
acidic pH and are called primary
lysosomes.
• When a primary lysosome fuses with a
food vesicle or other organelle, its pH falls
and its store of hydrolytic enzymes is
activated then it is called a secondary
Cont’d…

• In addition to breaking down organelles

and other structures within cells,
lysosomes also eliminate other cells , in
which the cell has engulfed in a process
called phagocytosis
• Endocytosis, when a white blood cell, for
example, phagocytizes a passing
pathogen, lysosomes fuse with the
resulting “food vesicle,” releasing their
•

Fig. 11 Lysosomes contains hydrolytic enzymes which

undergoes phagocytosis and break dawn of old
12. Cytoskeleton
Interior Framework
of the Cell.
• A network of protein
fibers supports the
shape of the cell and
anchors organelles.
• Cell Movement.
Eukaryotic cell
movement utilizes
cytoskeletal
elements.
Cytoskeletons
Fig. 12 plant cell
Fig. 13 animal cell
Fig. 14 comparison between plant and animal cell
 Table 2 comparison between bacteria plant and
animal sells
Structure Bacte Pl. An.C Function
ria Cell ell
Cell + + + Protection,communication, regulate
membrane
.
in/out flow
Cell wall + + - Protection, maintains cell shape
Cytoplasm + + + Gel-like interior of cell, contains
organelles
Nucleus - + + Encloses genetic material
(chromosomes)
DNA + + + Contains genetic information (genes)
Cytoskeleton - + + Cell support, movement
E.reticulum - + + Intracellular transport
Golgi - + + Packages material or cellular products
complex
Ribosomes + + + Manufacture proteins
Lysosomes - + + Contains enzymes for cellular
digestion
Microbodies - + + Breakdown damaging cpds
Mitochondria - + + Provide cell energy (site of cellular