TRAINING ON PV

TECHNOLOGIES
Energy sources

Name energy sources you know.

SOURCES OF ENERGY

There are 2 types of energy sources:

1. Non- renewable sources of
energy
2. Renewable sources of energy
NON- RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOURCES

They cannot be replenished (refilled) in

a short period of time. They come out of
the ground as liquids, gases and solids.
crude oil (petroleum) is the only natural
liquid commercial fossil fuel.
NON- RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOURCES
Natural gas and propane are normally gases,
and coal is a solid. Coal, Petroleum, natural
gas, and propane are all considered fossil
fuels because they formed from the buried
remains of plants and animals that lived
millions of years ago.
Uranium ore, a solid, is mined and converted
to a fuel. Uranium is not a fossil fuel.
Renewable sources of
energy

Definition:
Energy that occurs naturally and
continuously in the environment, such
as energy from the wind, waves or tides.
Geothermal: heat from the surface of
the earth..
Solar energy
Energy from the sun.
Can be direct or indirect
Indirect
Photosynthesis (e.g. biomass)
Wind
Hydro
Waves
Solar energy

Direct
Electricity (e.g. photovoltaic)
Thermal -Power generation
 -Water heating
 -Solar tower
 Drying (e.g. agricultural products, timber)
Space heating and Cooking
Wind energy

As the sun heats up the earth, the air in

direct contact with the land heats up
and so rises its place being taken up by
colder air from elsewhere on the earth.
This moving air is wind. The kinetic
energy in the wind can be used to run
turbines
HOW WIND IS FORMED
HOW WIND IS FORMED- SEA
BREEZE
Water power
Energy in water can be harnessed and used
in the form of motive energy. Forms:
Hydroelectric energy, a term usually
reserved for hydroelectric dams.
Tidal power, which captures energy from the
tides in horizontal direction. Tides come in,
raise water levels in a basin, and tides roll
out. The waves will usually move large
pontoons up and down.
 Biomass

Biomass energy is the energy derived from

organic matter. biomass is any matter
(terrestrial and aquatic) other than that which
has been fossilized.
This includes agricultural and forest products
e.g. wood, sugarcane, rape seed, etc, and
agricultural and forestry residues, animal wastes
both dung and abattoir-derived, municipal solid
wastes (MSW) including sewage.
BIOMASS

Traditionally, the extraction of energy

from biomass is split into 3 distinct
categories:
Liquid bio fuels
Biogas
Solid biomass
Liquid bio fuels

Liquid Bio fuels are obtained by subjecting organic

materials to one of various chemical or physical
processes to produce a usable, combustible,
liquid fuel. Bio fuels such as vegetable oils or
ethanol are often processed from industrial or
commercial residues such as bagasse
[sugarcane residue remaining after the sugar is
extracted] or from energy crops grown
specifically for this purpose. Bio fuels are often
used in place of petroleum derived liquid fuels.
SOLID BIOMASS

The use of trees, crop residues, animal

and human waste (although not strictly
a solid biomass source will undergo
physical processing such as cutting,
chipping, briquetting, etc. but retains in
its solid form)
Biogas

Biogas is obtained by anaerobically (in

an air free environment) digesting
organic material to produce a
combustible gas known as methane.
Animal waste and municipal waste are
two common feed stocks for anaerobic
digestion.
GLOBAL WARMING

This is the current increase in

temperature of the earths surface(land
and water) as well as its atmosphere.
Average temperature has increased by
0.75 degrees centigrade.
Activities like deforestation, burning of
fossil fuels are the main sources of this
green house gases.
GLOBAL WARMING
 when sunlight reaches earth. 30% of it is
reflected back to earth by clouds, atmospheric
particles, reflective ground surfaces.
Remainder of this heat is absorbed by the
oceans, air and land. This heats up the
planets surface and atmosphere. These gases
known as green house gases due to their heat
trapping capacity. These gases were increased
by burning of fossil fuels
GLOBAL WARMING EFFECTS

It accelerates melting of ice sheets

hence rise in average sea levels, change
in precipitation and weather patterns
making some places drier (drought) and
others wetter with increased floods
 Solar Radiation

Solar radiation is a study about energy

from the sun.
Definitions

Irradiance
Irradiance is the total energy from a
radiant source falling on a unit area. It is
represented by the symbol G and is
measured in watts per square meter [W/
m2].
Irradiation

 A measure of the solar energy received on a specific

area over a specific period of time, normally measured
in watt hours per square meter per day or peak sun
hours per day [Wh/m2].The peak sun hour is the length
of time in hours at an irradiance level of 1kW/m2]
needed to produce the daily irradiation obtained
from integration of irradiance over all day light
hours.
 The solar irradiation per day is of particular importance
for the design and sizing of solar PV systems.

Solar constant

The solar irradiance outside the Earth’s

atmosphere, also known as the solar
constant, is 1,367 W/m2. When the solar
radiation enters the atmosphere a part
of this power is absorbed by air
molecules, clouds
and dust reducing the net energy
reaching the earth to 1000 W/m2.
SOLAR CONSTANT
Radiation

Radiation can reach an exposed surface on

earth in different ways. The radiation that is
not reflected or scattered but reaches the
Earth’s surface directly is called direct
radiation [GB].The scattered radiation that
reaches the surface is called diffuse
radiation [GD]. Albedo [GR] is the radiation
reaching the earth’s surface after
reflection.
TERMS OF SOLAR RADIATION
Instruments measuring solar
radiation

Pyranometer: normally mounted horizontally

to collect general data for global radiation on a
horizontal surface measures global radiation.
Pyrheliometer: uses a long narrow tube
to collect beam radiation over a narrow
beam solid angle, about 5.5 inside of the
tube which is blackened to absorb any
radiation incident at angles outside the
collection angle.
Weather and Meteorological
data.

The amount of solar radiation on the

Earth’s surface depends mainly on four
factors :
The latitude of the site.
The time of the year
The time of day
The local weather
Latitude

The latitude of a location determines the

solar radiation. That is because
throughout the year the sun is travelling
between the Tropic of cancer (latitude
23.45° N) and the Tropic of Capricorn
(Latitude23.45°S). On 21 June the sun
appears vertically above the Tropic of
Capricorn.
Time of year

The extraterrestrial radiation is

changing over the year. That is ,
because the earth is revolving around
the sun in an elliptical orbit.
Season of the Year
(affects sunlight angle on the array)

SUN

Summer Winter
23° Equinox Equinox
(June) (December)
Time of Day

 During the course of the day the solar radiation is

changing, rising from a low value in the morning, peaks at
about mid day and begins to fall as day progresses. Peak
hours are considered the time between 9am and 3pm.
During this time solar panel should not be shaded-not
even partially.
 The Ugandan meteorological department gather and
publish data on solar radiation in Uganda at different
locations. Data is helpful in planning a solar electric
system. Sites like Entebbe, kimaka (jinja), soroti, arua
etc provide such information. It can be got from the
internet
Local weather

The local weather in terms of cloudiness

plays a significant role in the amount of
solar radiation a given location receives,
e.g. in Uganda the local weather in the
Kabale district (cloudy and mountainous
area) differs substantially from the Moyo
district (arid semi-desert). Most places in
east Africa receive between three and
eight peak sun hours per day.
Application for insolation
data in PV

The two applications of insolation data

in PV are
site planning and
solar PV system sizing.
Site planning

The insolation data of a site is a very

important factor for the planning
process of a solar PV system. It
therefore helps to identify the optimum
location for installing a system. The
target should always be to select a site
with the maximum solar radiation.
The insolation data of a designated solar
PV system site determines the peak sun
hours for that location. This factor is
most important when sizing the PV
system components.
Solar insolation in Uganda

In Uganda the highest radiation can be

expected during the month of January
and February. The lowest radiation is
usually In the month of July.
Table 2.1 shows the radiation in sun
peak hours both in February (max) as
well as July (min) for ten selected
locations in Uganda.
Selected sites in uganda
Applications of Solar PV

applications of solar PV can be broadly

categorized as extraterrestrial( like
powering satellites) and terrestrial
applications like here on earth.
APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR PV

Lighting Household, Offices, Street

lighting Security lighting etc.
Water :Water pumping for domestic
use (e.g. drinking water)
Agriculture (e.g. irrigation, animals)
Saltwater desalination
APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR PV
Cooling: Refrigeration (e.g. for household or
health centers), Ice production, Ventilation
Communications : Mobile phone charging,
Domestic appliances (e.g. radio, stereo TV,
video)
Data transmission: (e.g. repeaters,
communication dishes)Information and
communication technology (ICT) equipment
(e.g. computers.
APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR PV

Transport: Road sign lighting, Signaling

railway crossings, Hazard and warning
lights.
Agriculture : Electric fencing,
Automated feeding systems.
APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR PV

Battery charging: This is done as an

income generating project aimed at
charging batteries ranging from motor
cycle batteries, rechargeable lanterns,
and standby batteries.
Advantages of solar PV

Solar electric systems do not consume fuel.

Solar PV modules convert sunlight directly into
electricity.
They produce electricity quietly without
generating exhaust gases or other pollutants.
They are clean and environmentally friendly.
Compared to diesel generators, solar
electric systems require very little
maintenance.
Advantages of solar PV
 Solar electric systems are economical for a
number of small applications.
 The world market price for oil and gas is unstable
always rising but the price of solar cells and
other PV related equipments has fallen steadily.
 the running costs of solar systems are very low.
 The systems can be expanded easily by adding
more modules and batteries.
Properly installed systems are safe.
Limitations of solar PV
The initial costs of solar electric systems are
relatively high for rural standards.
Solar electric systems require batteries for
energy storage. The batteries must be
maintained properly. The performance of the
system depends on the quality of batteries
available on the market.
Dc appliances are expensive compared to
AC
Limitations of solar PV
 Solar electric systems are not suitable for the
following applications:
 Heating water with an electric water kettle
 Ironing
 Cooking on an electric stove
 Washing machine, electric dish washer
 Due to the nature of these applications they
require a lot of energy for heating water, or in
the case of ironing, making them so expensive.
PV systems

A solar electric system consists of the

following components:
1) Solar module
2) Storage (mostly chemical batteries)
3) Power conditioning unit(s)
4) Load
5) Accessories (e.g. switches, sockets,
cables)
Solar PV configurations

Solar PV configuration is the way solar PV

components are connected so as to work
together as a system.
There are three (3) solar PV
configurations:
1) stand alone
2) Hybrid
3) Grid tie/ connected
Stand alone

There are two kinds of stand alone:

Stand alone without battery
Stand alone with battery
direct-coupled system

The simplest type of stand-alone PV

system. The DC output of a PV module or
array is directly connected to a DC load.
The load only operates during sunlight
hours. These designs are suitable for
common applications such as ventilation
fans, water pumps, and small circulation
pumps for solar thermal water heating
systems.
direct-coupled system
(water pumping)
Water pumping system

A type of electronic DC-DC converter,

called a maximum power point tracker
(MPPT) is used between the array and
load as the charge controller to help
better utilize the available array
maximum power output.
Stand alone with battery
Connected as shown in diagram. The charge
controller regulates the battery charging
process. If required, a DC-AC inverter is directly
connected to the battery. The AC load is then
powered through the inverter.
The benefit of AC systems is that AC
components (wiring, etc.) are usually
cheaper than the DC components and the
AC products like TVs are commonly available.
Stand alone with battery
Stand alone with battery
Hybrid PV systems

Hybrid PV systems are generating

electricity through a combination of a
solar generator and additional energy
sources (e.g. wind generator, diesel
generator).
Hybrid pv system
Grid-connected PV systems

Designed to operate in parallel with and

interconnected with the electric utility grid.
The primary component is the inverter, or
power conditioning unit (PCU). It converts
the DC power produced by the PV array
directly into AC power consistent with the
voltage and power quality requirements of
the utility grid. Example is soroti and
kabulasoke solar plants.
GRID TIE SOLAR PV SSTEM
Grid-connected PV systems

It automatically stops supplying power

to the grid when the utility grid is not
energized. A bi-directional interface is
made between the PV system AC output
circuits and the electric utility network,
typically at an on-site distribution panel
or service entrance.
Grid-connected PV systems
This allows the AC power produced by the PV
system to supply on-site electrical loads. At
night and other periods when the electrical
loads are greater than the PV system output,
the balance of the power required in all the
grid-connected PV systems is supplied by the
utility supply, and ensures that the PV system
will not continue to operate and feedback on to
the utility grid when it is down for service or
repair.
Solar PV modules

Solar PV cells
Solar PV cells convert sunlight directly
into electricity. PV stands for photo
(light) and voltaic (electricity), whereby
sunlight photons free electrons from
common silicon.
Materials used for PV cells

The most common semi conductors

used in PV cells are listed below.
Silicon
Germanium
Cadmium-Sulphide
Gallium-Arsenide
teluride
 PHOTOVOLTAICS
Photo - Light (solar radiation)
Volt - Electricity
Photovoltaic cells transform solar
radiation directly into electricity
 Principle and theory of PV
conversion

A typical silicon PV cell is composed of a

thin wafer consisting of an ultra-thin
layer of n-type material on the top and a
thicker layer of p-type material at the
botom.
 Photovoltaic Cells
 Small calculated quantities of impurities
atoms are added to the crystalline structure
of silicon. This process is called DOPING
 If the impurity atom contains more electrons
than the silicon atom, the structure would
acquire an excess of electrons hence N- type
 If the other atom contains less electrons than
the silicon atom, the structure would have a
shortage of electrons hence calles P- type
Making a Photovoltaic Cell

 The N-type and the P-type silicon are brought

together.
 When the two types of semiconductors are
brought together, the N-P JUNCTION is created.
 The N-P JUNCTION is an area of the photovoltaic
cell where an electromagnetic field has formed.
The electromagnetic field maintains the
separation of the positive charges in P-Type
layer and the negative charges in the N-type
layer.
 Photovoltaic Cells
 Side View of the Photovoltaic Cell that has
been doped with other chemicals

Top Side is Negatively Charged

- - - - - - - - PN Junction
250 µm
+ + + + + + + Bottom Side is Positively Charged
 The Photovoltaic Effect
 PHOTONS are energy carrying particles of light.
Photons come with light. They strike on exposed solar
cells.
 If the photon is strong enough, it can release
electrons in the photovoltaic cell and these negative
charges are free to roam around. The release of the
electron may also create a “hole”, an incomplete
bond between two atoms (an area of positive charge).
 Most of the time, the free electron recombines into
the crystalline structure somewhere and some other
free electron “falls” into the hole that was created.
 The Photovoltaic Effect
 A free electron is accelerated by the
electromagnetic field at the N-P Junction and is
pushed up through the N-type layer.
 The “hole” that was created is pushed through
the N-P junction finding itself in the P-type layer.
 A voltage drop appears between the two sides
of the N-P junction, and if connected to an
external circuit, a current is induced.
ELECTRICITY FROM LIGHT!!!
 The Photovoltaic Effect
 Photons converted to electric charge
movement Photons

External
Circuit
N - Type

P-Type

Electric Current
How PV module generates
electrical energy

When sunlight strikes the surface of a PV

cell, electron- hole pairs are formed and
the in-built electrical field provides
momentum which results in flow of electric
current when the solar cell is connected to
an external electrical load.
A typical silicon PV cell produces about
0.5-0.6 VDC under open-circuit, conditions.
 PV cells
PV cells are connected electrically in series
and/or parallel circuits to produce higher
voltages, currents and power levels. PV modules
consist of PV cells circuits sealed in an
environmentally protective laminate.
Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV
modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-
installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the
complete power-generating unit, consisting of
any number of PV modules.
Types of silicon cells

The current development in solar PV

differentiates between the following
types of solar cells or modules:
Monocrystalline silicon cells
Polycrystalline silicon cells
Amorphous silicon cells
 cell types

Monocrystalline cells
most efficient of the photovoltaic (PV)
technologies with high efficiencies, typically
around 14-17%,they are the most costly.
Polycrystalline cells
they tend to be slightly less efficient, with
average efficiencies of around 13-15%.
They are cheaper than monocrystalline
Amorphous cells
Amorphous silicon cells are composed of
silicon atoms in a thin homogenous layer,
hence “thin film” PV technology. Amorphous
silicon absorbs light more effectively than
crystalline silicon, so the cells can be thinner.
Amorphous cells are, however, less efficient
than crystalline based cells with efficiencies
of around 5-7%, but they are easier and
therefore cheaper to produce and so cheaper
Rating of solar PV modules

Since panels are tested at the peak

radiation of 1kW/m2, their rating is given in
terms of peak power. Therefore solar
modules are rated in watt-peak (Wp),
which is the maximum power that can be
delivered by the cell or module. This is
given at the corner point of the I-V curve
known as the maximum power point
(MPP).
 The I-V curve

Each solar cell and module has its own

particular set of operating characteristics.
These properties can be described by the
current-voltage curve, which is better
known as the I-V curve. I-V curves are
used to compare various solar cell
modules, and to determine their
performance at various levels of load and
temperatures
I-V curve
I-V curve definitions

Isc, the short circuit current, is the point where

the curve intercepts the vertical. This is the
maximum current that the module is capable
of producing. Voltage is zero.
Voc, the open circuit voltage, is the point
where the curve intercepts the horizontal
axis This is the maximum voltage that the
module can produce on a sunny day. This
is no load
I-V curve definitions

Pm, the maximum power point, is the point

on the I-V curve where the module
produces the greatest power (its rated
maximum). The maximum power point is
always found at the place where the curve
begins to bend steeply downward (i.e. at
the knee, point D). It is advisable to
operate a module as near to the maximum
power point as possible. If,
Connection of PV modules
 Solar PV modules can be connected into arrays of
multiple modules. The connection of these modules
could be done in seris or parallel circuits. This is
dependent on the desired system voltage. For example
a set of four modules could be connected as:
 Four modules in one serial circuit charging a 48 VDC
system
 Four modules in one parallel circuit charging a 12 VDC
system
 Two serial strings of two modules in parallel circuits
charging a 24 VDC system
 Wiring modules together
Isolation
Diodes
Battery
Position
Positive
of
Bypass 24 Volt
Diodes Six 12 Volt Deep
3 Amp Solar Cycle
Modules Battery

Battery
Negative

String 1 String 2 String 3

 Diodes
 Bypass Diode - a bypass path around a disabled
module (most commonly used in systems over 48
volts)
 Isolation Diode - prevents the power from the rest
of the array from flowing through a damaged
series string of modules
 Blocking Diode - stops reverse current
Current can flow in thisflow
directionfrom

the battery
Shotkey Diodes = .4 volt drop
Silicon Diodes = .7 volt drop

Current cannot flow in this direction

 Wiring modules together
Parallel Strings of Modules - The amps
add up while the voltage stays the
same.
Series Strings of Modules - The voltage
adds up while the amps stay the same.
Always make your series connections
first and then make your parallel
connections.
 Factors affecting Power
output
 Number of cells in the module
All silicon type cells generate a potential
difference of about 0.55 V in normal
operation. For this reason cells are
connected in series in order to bring the
voltage up to a useful level. A solar PV
module consists normally of about 30-36
cells. This translates into an open circuit
voltage of 16.5 to 19.8 VDC.
 Factors affecting Power
output
Type of the cells
This is governed by the efficiency of the
cell.
Size of the module
The size of the module affects the
output current of the module and thus
the power output.
Factors affecting Power
output

Amount of solar radiation

Solar module output depends very much
on the intensity of the solar radiation on
the module. The output is directly
proportional to the solar irradiance.
During cloudy weather the voltage of
the module is reduced.
Factors affecting Power
output

Module Angle with respect to the sun

in Uganda, whose latitude is between 10S
and 40N,modules should be installed more
or less horizontally. However to allow a self-
cleaning process of the modules through
rainfall they should be placed at about 15
degrees to the horizontal. Solar incident
angle should be approximately 900
Factors affecting Power
output

 Temperature of the module

 Solar PV modules generate more power
at lower temperatures. This is because
photovoltaic cells are electronic devices
and generate electricity from light, not
heat. As the temperature increases, the
power output falls by 0.5% per degree
centigrade rise.
 Energy Storage in PV Systems
 There are many different types of batteries but the
DEEP CYCLE LEAD-ACID Battery is now the most
common type used in photovoltaic systems.
 Batteries are used to store electrical energy
generated by the solar modules during the day
and then deliver energy directly to DC loads or to
the AC loads (via an inverter).
 Other types of energy storage include raised water
tanks and alkaline batteries and fuel cells.
Types of batteries
Lead acid

In two types:

Shallow discharge- wet battery as used
in car
Deep discharge- gel battery
GEL BATTERIES

Lead sulphuric acid battery

Sometimes refereed to as:
 maintenance free
Sealed
Powder etc
 Contains electrolyte ( acid) in GEL form
 When in use, escaping gases are converted
into liquid
GEL BATTERY
BATTERY PRINCIPLE
 basic power unit inside a battery is called a cell
 There are two electrodes ( positive and
negative) (electrical terminals) and a chemical
called an electrolyte in between them
 The electrodes are of dismilar metals.
 This is the key to how and why a battery works:
one of the materials "likes" to give up electrons,
the other likes to receive them.
Working principle

The chemical reactions in a

rechargeable battery are reversible:
when the battery is discharging the
reactions go one way and the battery
gives out power; when the battery is
charging, the reactions go in the
opposite direction and the battery
absorbs power.
Working principle

These chemical reactions can happen

hundreds of times in both directions, so a
rechargeable battery will typically give you
anything from two or three to as much as 10
years of useful life (depending on how often
you use it and how well you look after it).
PBO2 IS POSITIVE
PB IS NEGATIVE
Working principle

 reduced to its basic components, each cell

has a "spongy" lead metal electrode
(negative), a lead dioxide electrode
(positive), and a sulfuric acid electrolyte.
on discharge, both electrodes become
coated with lead sulfate and the sulfuric
acid is largely converted into water, while
electrons flow out around the external
circuit to provide power.
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION EQUATION
 Release of stored
energy from the battery
Discharging the Battery: 2 e-
In chemical terms, the Discharge
the Lead-Acid battery
stores energy using the POS NEG
“oxidation - reduction”
reaction (transfer of e-) PbO2 SO4-- Pb
At the negative plate, H2
Pb + SO4-- PbSO4 + 2e-
Electrolyte
At the positive plate,
PbO2 + 4H+ + SO4-- + 2e- PbSO4 + 2H2O
 Putting energy
into the battery
Charging the Battery:
Electrolysis is the 2 e- Photovoltaic 2 e-
Array
conversion of H20 Charge
into H2 and O2 gas.
POS NEG
At the negative plate, PbO2 Pb
2H + 2e- H2 release
O2 H2
At the positive plate,
SO4-- + H2O H2SO4 Electrolyte
+ 2e- + ›02 release
 Battery Terms
 Cycle - an interval that includes one period of
discharging and one period of charging
 Amp-hour (AH) Capacity - the number of amps a
battery can discharge, multiplied by the number of
hours it can deliver that current
 Depth of Discharge - how much of the total AH
capacity of the battery is used after a discharge
 State of Charge - Amount of energy remaining in
a battery. measured with a hydrometer or
voltmeter
Battery Terms

Shallow discharge- Batteries

characterized by having thin plates and
can so be discharge rapidly in a short
time. Example is a car battery
Deep discharge- Batteries characterized
by thick plates. THIS COMES OUT IN
TERMS OF THEIR WEGHT. and cannot be
discharged rapidly. Example is gel battery
Battery Terms

Self discharge- . This is a situation

where a batery discharges its energy
even iff its not loaded. battery
discharging when not loaded
Overcharge- state in which a battery is
forced to take more energy when it is
already full. This can be done by applying
a voltage beyond 14 volts for a 12V
battery
 Different factors
affecting Battery Performance
 Charge & Discharge Rate, the “C” Rate (capacity / hours)
C/20 = it will take 20 hours to fully discharge
the battery
 Temperature (25° C is ideal)
 Daily average Depth of Discharge (10-20% is ideal)
500
500
0 Chart is for a
4000
Number
3000 high quality
of
2000 deep cycle
Cycles
lead acid
1500
Battery
1000

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Daily Average Depth of Discharge (%)
 But We only get two or three years out
of our batteries…..! Why????
 Sulfation - the result of a low average depth of
discharge (crystallization of the lead sulfate)
 Stratification – this is a situation in batteris
where the no equalization charges every 60 cycles
(electrolyte separates into water and acid)
 Insufficient charge rate - can happen when
corrosion is allowed to build up on the post
connections
 Diminished capacity - electrolyte level has not
been checked and lead plates are exposed
Maintaining batteries

Regularly check state of charge

Check electrolyte level regularly
Clean top of battery
Clean terminals
Give it equalizing charges
CONNECTING BATTERIES-
SERIES
CONNECTING BATTERIES-
PARALLEL
POWERING A 12V DC LOAD
POWERING A 24V DC LOAD
CONDITIONS OF CONNECTING
BATTERIES

- THEY SHOULD BE SAME TYPE (GEL OR WET)

-THEY SHOULD BE SAME AGE(NOT MORE THAN 1
YEAR APART)
THEY SHOULD BE SAME VOLTAGE
THEY SHOULD BE SAME CAPACITY (AH)
NEVER CONNECT BATTERIES TO WORK
TOGETHER IF ANY OF THE ABOVE
CONDITIONS IS NOT MADE
Charge Controllers
Component on a PV system used to control/
regulate operations on the battery as:
Regulate battery charging by automatic
means.
Prevent battery from over discharge by
automatic means.
Provide a centre of connection.
Center for information about the system
operation thru LED or Display
 Charge Controller
characteristics
 The primary function of the charge controller is
to protect the battery from overcharge or
over-discharge.
 Characteristics :
Rated Nominal Voltage (12, 24, 48+)
Maximum current capabilities
Indicator lights or alarms
Equalization charge function
Low voltage disconnect
CHARGE CONTROLLER
SPECIFICATIONS
SPECIFICATIONS
SPECIFICATIONS OF CHARGE
CONTROLLER

MAXIMUM MODULE (IN PUT) CURRENT

MAXIMUM LOAD CURRENT
SYSTEM VOLTAGE
Maximum module voltage
CHARGE CONTROLLERS
MODELS ( PHESUM)
CHARGE CONTROLLERS
MODELS (XANTREX)
CHARGE CONTROLLERS
MODELS ( STECCA)
CHARGE CONTROLLERS
MODELS
CHARGE CONTROLLERS
MODELS

1) STECCA
MORNING STAR
XANTREX
OUTBACK
Victron
keema
Basic Voltage regulation
using a Charge / Discharge Controller
CHARGE CONTROLLER TYPES

SHUNT REGULATOR: The control element is

connected in parallel with the module. As
battery becomes full, control element diverts
current from module losing it in form of heat
SERIES REGULATOR: Control element in
series with module and battery. As battery
becomes full, control element rises
resistance thereby reducing current to
battery.
SHUNT REGULATOR
SERIES REGULATOR
ORDER OF CHARGE
CONTROLLER CONNECTION

1) BATTERY TO CHARGE CONTROLLER

2) MODULE TO CHARGE CONTROLLER
3) DC LOAD TO CHARGE CONTROLLER
BATTERY TO CHARGE
CONTROLLER
MODULE TO CHARGE
CONTROLLER
THE COMPLETE SYSTEM
CONNECTION OF INVERTER

NEVER CONNECT INVETER TO CHARGE

CONTROLLER DC OUT PUT
CHARGE CONTROLLER SIZING
Sizing is the way of calculating capacity of a solar PV
component.
Charge controllers are rated in terms of current capacity.
They range from 3A as minimum. Other ranges include 5,12,
15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 60 etc
A solar electric system with a TV, a few lights and a sewing
machine would rather need a charge controller rated at 20 A.
more specifically the charge controller sizing depends on the
maximum module current and the maximum load current of
the system.
Basically, the controller rating should be able to handle the
maximum module current.
 CHARGE
CONTROLLER SIZING

The controller size is determined by the

maximum incoming current from the
module and the maximum demand of
the load.
CHARGING CURVES

Battery charging process is in three

steps:
BULK: the charge voltage is set at the
bulk level (where the maximum current
of the source is taken). During this time,
the battery voltage rises close to the
charge voltage level.
 14V TO 14.5V
BATTERY CHARGE DETAILS
CHARGING CURVES

ABSORPTION: This is activated when the

battery voltage approaches the bulk
setting. The voltage at the battery is
maintained at the bulk level for a period of
approximately one hour as calculated by
an internal timer.
FLOAT : This is the standby level at which
the battery must be kept. At this moment,
battery charge is complete.
CHARGING CURVES
 Single-Stage Charge controller
functions
 2.50
2.43 Controller
Switched to
Equalization
2.26
Cell Charge Function
Controller Controller
Voltage Cuts Re-Connects Controller
Modules Modules Re-Connects
2.00 Loads

Controller
1.85
Disconnects
1.75 Loads
TIME
POWER CONDITIONING UNIT

There are two types:

Inverter: converts DC to AC
Converter: chances DC from one level of
voltage to another level of voltage
 Inverters
 Inverters convert DC power from the batteries or
solar array into AC power
 Different types of AC power can be produced; square
wave, modified square wave and sine wave power.
Inverters can be designed to produce 50 or 60 Hz
 The two main types of inverters are the transformer-
based types and the high-frequency switching types
 Inverters are named according to output
waveform
TRANFORMER TYPE
HIGH FREQUENCY TYPE
SINE WAVE INVERTER
Inverter Wave Forms

Modified
Square Wave Sine Wave
Square Wave
 Inverter terms
 Maximum output watts (amps) - number of watts the
inverter can produce continuously.
 Surge watts – power drawn by some loads due to their
nature. It is more than the continuous watts of the
inverter. It is produced temporarily (for between 15-30
minutes)
 Efficiency (95-98% mod. sine wave, 80-95% sine wave)
rated at a certain wattage
 Harmonic distortion - stability of the frequency output
(2-35%)
 DC voltage limits (10.5 - 15 Volts for 12 V model)
INVERTER COST

Sine wave inverter is the most expensive

It can run all types of loads including laser
printer, refrigerator, etc.
Modified sine wave inverter is next in line.
It is limited on which loads it can run some
limited loads apart from. laser printer,
refrigerator, etc.
INVETER SPECIFICATIONS
SPECIFIED BY:
1) INPUT VOLTAGE (V)- 12, 24, 36, 48, 72, 96,
120
TYPE- SINEWAVE, MODIFIED SINEWAVE.
POWER OUTPUT- WATTS EG 180, 300, 500,
600, 750, 900, 1250, ETC
OUTPUT VOLTAGE- UGANDAN IS 220/240VOLTS
CATEGORY- BACKUP, DIRECT DRIVE
SPECIFICATIONS
BACK UP INVERTER
Has a hydro power cable
Direct drive inverter(no link to
umeme)
SOLAR PV SYSTEM SIZING

The process of designing a Pv system to

serve a desired load.
If not well done system may be:
Less functional than expected
More expensive than expected
STEPS IN SOLAR PV SIZING

1) PREPARATION
2) SITE SURVEY
3)DATA GATHERING
4) LOAD ANALYSIS
5) PV SYSTEM COMPONENTS SIZING
PREPARATION

WHAT IS NEEDED?
PREPARATION

The organization and choice of items for

the survey. Items include:
1) Pen and paper
2) tape measure
3) safety gear
WHAT DO YOU DO THERE?
SITE SURVEY
Assessment of requirements of solar
Installation. The following may be considered:
1) Where should the panels be put- mounting?
2) how is shading of the area
3) nature of loads and operation periods (hrs).
4) How much cable and accessory is needed.
5) Nature of tools, equipment to be
used,etc
LOAD ANALYSIS

It is the assessment of the energy

demand of loads:
 This involves their power in watts and
the time of operation in hours.
In some situations, it involves nature of
loads e.g. refrigerator, laser printer etc
 Photovoltaic
System Design
The Daily Energy Requirement Worksheet
methodology:
 List all possible loads (name, power, type)
 Consider taking loads off the system(load
shedding”)
 Consider load reduction (high efficiency)
 When will the loads be used?
 How many hours will the loads be used
each day (on average)?
CALCULATION OF ENERGY
DEMAND

ENERGY DEMAND = POWER (watts) x

DAILY USAGE (hours)
SYSTEM ENERGY LOSS

Energy loss is influenced by:

1) energy loss due to cables
2) efficiency of loads
3) efficiency of inverter
This energy must also come from the
PV system
CALCULATING ENERGY LOSS

To cater for energy loss =

 Total daily energy demand x 20%
Total daily energy demand

The energy demand is measured in Watt

hours (Wh).
The first step is to determine the power
(wattage) of each item. The power of a
device is usually stamped or printed on
a nameplate or identification plate on
the rear of the unit. multiply the amps
by the volts to find the power. T
Total daily energy demand

The next step is to decide how many hours

per day (average) each appliance is to be
used. The load estimate must be as precise
as possible to avoid over sizing or under
sizing the system. If design is over sized,
money is wasted on excess capacity. If it is
undersized, power shortages during operation
may result, i.e. the system is unreliable.
The data is transferred to the work sheet
System energy loss

 determine the system energy loss. The

system energy loss is influenced by
factors such as
 The efficiency of the battery
 The efficiency of an inverter and
other power conditioning systems.
 Energy loss through resistance of
cables
. Daily system energy
requirement

A practical approach to determine the

system energy loss is to add 20% to the
total daily energy demand, which in our
example would be 57 Wh.
The daily system energy requirement is
the sum of the daily energy demand and
the calculated system energy loss. In
our example 287 + 57 =344Wh.
CALCULATING TOTAL SYSTEM
ENERGY DEMAND
Total energy demand =
daily energy demand + energy loss
But energy loss= daily energy demand x 20%
= daily energy demand + daily energy demand x
20%
=daily energy demand( 1+20%)
daily energy demand x (1+ 0.2)
=daily energy demand x 1.2
 ( 287 X 1.2= 344 WH
Choosing system voltage

Scalar electric systems for home users

most often based on 12 VDC or 24VCD.
To put it briefly: the advantage of 12
VDC systems is, that the system is
operating on a lower current, which has
an influence on the cable sizing
n our example we will be choosing the
12VCD system.
Daily system charge
requirement

To determine the daily system charge

requirement the daily system energy
requirement (363Wh) must be divided by the
chosen system voltage [12V]. The result will
be in ampere hours (Ah).
System charge Requirement (amp hours)
=
System Energy Requirement (watt
hours)/system Voltage (volts)
Daily system charge
requirement

 363.6Wh/12V = 30.3Ah
Charging Current (amperes)
=
Daily System Charge Requirement
(ampere hours) / Peak Sun Hours (hours)
Our example requires a charging current

of 30.3Ah/5.1 h = 5.94A
MODULE CHOICE

depending on the calculated charging

current decide module via current capacity
eg 75 watt module delivers
power of module/17.3v = 75/17.3
= 4.33A
In our example, module size can be 17.3 x 5.6
= 96.88W
 Sizing the
Power Source
 Will there be a generator or any other power
source to assist the photovoltaic modules? ( is
PV assisting or alone? Need for inverter charger/
programmable inverter)
 What are the Peak sun hours (be conservative-)?
 Is the average temperature above 25° C?
clearance of module from roof/involve factor)
 What is the system voltage?
 How far is the array from the batteries?
 Sizing the battery

 Choosing a system voltage : Consider max load in

watts. In general, less than 900 watts: 12 volts,
1000-2000 watts: 24 volts, >2000 watts 48 volts, etc.

 In general, the higher the voltage for the better (less

parallel connections and reduced current for same
power)
 Choosing battery type : 1) always use deep cycle
batteries,
 Sizing the battery–we need

 1) DAILY SYSTEM CHARGE REQUIREMENT

 2) STORAGE DAYS (days of system use without

sunshine)

 3)MAXIMUM DEPTH OF DISCHARGE (D.O.D) X (0.5 for Gel and 0.2

wet)
 4) DAYS OF AUTONOMY
 5) SYSTEM VOLTAGE
Sizing the battery

REQUIRED BATTERY CAPACITY (AH) =

 SYSTEM ENERGY REQUIRED (WH) X STORAGE

DAYS
 SYSTEM VOLTAGE (V) X DEPTH OF DISCHARGE

 NOTE THAT THE CAPACITY (AH) CAN BE

SEVERAL BATTERIES CONNECTED IN
SERIES/PARALLEL.
 Sizing the Batteries
Battery Sizing Calculation

Energy System Amp Hours 0.5(GEL)

Required Voltage Required / Day Battery
÷ = ÷ (Max DOD)
344 12 Volts .28.6 AH
per day 57 AH
 Sizing the voltage Controller
(Regulator)
 Know your maximum inputs (short circuit current)
 Will the controller voltage set points be set at the
factory or will you set them?
 What type of cabinetry / metering will you use?
 Will you use circuit breakers or fuses to isolate
the controller? ( fuses max current × 1.25)
 Will you expand at a later date?
 Will you need heat sink or active ventilation?
 Sizing the Inverter
 Know your maximum inputs and outputs
 What types of loads will you be using?
 Are there surge loads? (surge capacity)
 Are loads non-continuous? (“sleep” mode)
 Marine environment? (conformal coating)
 Will you expand at a later date?
 Will use use a generator set with the PV?
 Different Loads on a
Photovoltaic system
Resistive loads (ex. Incandescent light
bulbs or rice cookers)
Inductive loads (ex. Fluorescent light
ballasts or electric motors)
Electronic loads ( ex. Radios, TV’s and
telecommunications equipment)
 Inverter calculations

System Voltage Maximum Connected Max Surge Watts

Watts Nominal
24 Volts
Minimum Range 2062 Watts 4124 Watts
20-30 Volts

Sine Wave? Include a “Sleep”

Options Battery Charger? Mode?

Yes / No Yes / No Yes / No

 Photovoltaic System
Component choice
 AC or DC or AC/DC system?
 What types of loads are being used?
 Will you expand at a later date?
 Will the equipment be mounted in a difficult
(marine, dusty, high temp.) or remote area?
 Can there be temporary “down-times”?
 What are the safety and security issues?
 Who will maintain the system and how often?
System Installation and
Maintenance
Preparation: Planning- organizing equipment
and logistics for installation.
Tools, equipment, logistics( bedding, Food,
Manpower, etc. Make a list and tick to cross
check what is loaded.
Transport: Items should be secured against
breakage, damage. Avoid loss of small items-
keep in a packet, box etc. mark the
boxes with number for identification
 System Sizing,
Installation and Maintenance
 When you design a solar energy system, you
should first define the loads
 During a system installation, safety and good
wiring technique should be your main
concerns
 Maintenance of photovoltaic systems is not
difficult but it must be consistent to guarantee
long life from the equipment
 Choosing the right site
for your solar array
Peak Sun Hours-
Shadows and Wind- avoid them as possible
Safety – minimize theft and vandalism
Lightning- install arrester in prone area
Heat – install module 20cm mimimum
above iron roof.
Electrical Grounding- Install earthing
means
HANDLING MODULES

Modules are covered with glass but built

into an aluminum frame.
Lift with care.
Avoid hard objects striking module
Do not stack many in one large pile
 Mounting Modules
to a support structure
 Pay attention to your solar window(9am-3pm) and wind
load
 Mount at least 20 cm above any roofing material
 Get the module direction and tilt angle correct
(use the latitude, or latitude +/- 15°)
 In the Northern Hemisphere, face the modules to
the South. In the Southern Hemisphere (below the
Equator), face the modules to the North ( NOT SO
APPLICABLE TO EQUATOR).
 Use ground rods, lightning arrestor, aluminum frames
and good cement
MODULE MOUNTING METHODS

ROOF TOP MOUNTING (Avoid leakages

POLE MOUNTING(Expensive and limited
to 4 modules).
GROUND MOUNTING (Suitable for many
modules)
 Wiring modules together
 Cut module interconnects to appropriate length (cable
size used is dependent on array size- minimum 4mm sq,
type UV)
 Use the proper wire terminals
 Crimp carefully (make a “lifetime” connection)
 Seal junction box ingress and egress properly (silicon
grease)
 Be careful with the junction box screws
 Pay attention to your “drip loops”
 Do series wiring first then parallel wiring second
 Cover modules while you work during the day
 WIRING

Follow regulations. Label cables e.g.

array positive,
Follow color codes
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
RED BLACK
BROWN BLUE
 WIRING

Double check polarity

Earth module frames
For surface mounted cable, use appropriate
fasteners.
Switches- DC preferred.
Time switch, photo sensitive may be used.
Lighting–energy saver and high
efficiency
 A place for Power
Conditioning equipment
 Keep equipment documentation nearby
 Label battery, array and load disconnects
 Vent the batteries away from electronics
 Make sure the space is clean and dry
 Use plastic insect screen over cabinet vents
 Mount meters, system disconnects at eye level
 Mount electronics at least › meter off the ground
 Use a drip loop at the service entrance
 Wiring Power Conditioning
equipment together
 Size wire for 3% maximum voltage drop on all DC lines (array,
battery, inverter, DC loads)
 “Twist” positive and negative DC conductors (RF reduction)
 Use DC rated equipment and ground the system according to code
 Use cable raceways or conduit wherever possible
 Connections (best to worst) solder, split bolt, wire nut
 Do not tighten equipment pressure terminals too much
 Follow manufacturer’s recommended sequence for connections.
Pay close attention to polarity
 Use consistent wire insulation colors
 Use anti-corrosion spray (or grease) liberally
 Use DC rated battery and array disconnects
 Wiring the Inverter
 Mount no farther than 4 meters from the battery in a dry,
well ventilated area. Case and AC output are grounded/
earthed
 Positive and negative DC cables are twisted together, as
thick as possible (welding cable) and are the same length
 ENSURE THAT DC POLARITY IS CORRECT!!
 Use fast blow, no-arc fuses to protect the inverter
 Options include:
“sleep” mode
battery charger
meters and LED’s
 Battery safety
 Water and baking soda (a chemical base to
neutralize any spilled acid) should be kept nearby
 Sulfuric acid can cause severe burns. Wash
electrolyte off of your skin or out of your eyes
immediately
 Batteries produce hydrogen gas which is highly
flammable. Vent the battery room and do not use a
lighter or candle to check electrolyte levels
 Batteries can hold a lot of energy and short circuits
across your tools can cause severe burns or death.
Use insulated tools and be careful handling batteries
 Adding electrolyte
to Batteries
 Wear old clothes, rubber gloves and eye goggles when working
with sulfuric acid
 Electrolyte should be at 1.25 specific gravity (s.g.) at 25° C. It
may be different in warmer climates
 If you must mix electrolyte or adjust electrolyte
s.g., use clean 7.0 pH water only
 Clean the tops of the cells first
 Add electrolyte, wait one hour (with the cell caps off!), then top
up the cells
 Don’t overfill the cells (look for fill lines on battery case) and
wait an hour before charging
 Have soda bicarbonate at hand in case of acid spillage or contact
with body.
 Wiring Batteries Together
 Check polarity with multi-meter before wiring
 Use as thick a wire as possible for cell or battery
interconnects
 Do not tighten the terminal connections too much
 Use insulated tools
 Put batteries on a level, stable rack. Make sure
you can see and add electrolyte easily
 Use anti-corrosion spray on all connections
 Ensure proper ventilation
CHARGE CONTROLLER

Connect battery first

Connect module next
Connect DC Load last
 Activate type of battery function and any other
function.
 LABELING

Should be of permanent nature:

Battery- Danger, do not short circuit, etc
 Charge controller- Name and address of contractor,
Reading of system performance etc
 Entrance –SAVE ENERGY, switch off lights when
leaving room
 INSPECTION & TESTING
Inspection- visual check to correct
installation
Eg. Is module away from shade? Is red in
positive and black in negative? Is charge
controller display alright?
Testing-use instrument to confirm standards
Is red thru switch, are voltages in limit?etc
 COMMISIONING

Testing system operation to client:

Switch on lights one at a time- should
light.
Switch on sockets- Appliances should
operate
Operate circuit breaker- should respond
 END USER TRAINING

Sensitizing client about PV system:

-when and how modules are cleaned
- when and how to top up electrolyte
-how to clean battery terminals
How to replace lamp.
etc
-who to call in case of failure.
 System maintenance
 Minimum required tools include, log book, multi-
meter (2), fuses, hydrometer, screwdrivers, nut
drivers (wrenches), linesman pliers, flashlight,
utility knife,
wire strippers/crimpers, cloth/ rag (2),
manufacturers literature, battery terminal cleaner
 Obtain permission to disconnect loads
 For telecommunications systems, maintenance is
usually performed 2 times a year (once a year at
a minimum)
 System Maintenance

 When you arrive, check for any security problems

 With disconnect switches closed, record all
system meters and status indicators
 With the multi-meter, check array and battery
voltage (check current between controller and
battery if you have a clamp-on amp meter)
 Check for open circuit breakers or blown fuses
 Use your ears and your nose. Are controller
relays chattering or do you smell burning plastic?
 System maintenance

Open system disconnects and use your

multi-meter to confirm that the power is
actually cut off
Check for loose wires or connections at
the controller.
Use your eyes. Remove cabinet covers
and visually inspect all equipment
wiring.
 Battery Maintenance
 Clean tops of batteries before removing cell caps
 Check electrolyte level, add only distilled water
(pH 7.0)
 Check flame arrestor or recombination caps on
the batteries
 Repair corroded or burnt connections. Pull on
the wires a little to see if they are loose.
 Inspect battery rack or container and ensure it is
in good condition and level
 Photovoltaic Array
maintenance
 Check module glass and module support
structures for any damage. Clean the modules
 Remove connection box covers and check
wiring and wire connections for damage. If
repairs are necessary, cover the modules
 If possible, measure open circuit voltage and
short circuit current of each array string at
13:00 hours on a sunny day. If you find a fault,
open module junction boxes and check each
module
 Load maintenance

Close all disconnect switches and make

sure loads are operating as designed.
Clean and lubricate loads as required
Confirm that no new loads have been
added to the system and that loads are
operating for the specified number of
hours per day.
TROUBLE SHOOTING

Corrective maintenance on a system.

 Troubleshooting
 Get permission to disconnect the loads
 Other than oversize loads and poor wiring connections, most
photovoltaic repair operations are replacement operations.
“Troubleshooting by replacement” (ex. with a new charge
controller) is a valid method.
 Seek the cause, not the symptom. Sometimes components fail
but there may be another defect in the system that is causing
repeated failures.
 Don’t stop with one problem. Always check the entire system.
 Test the replaced components after it has been taken out of the
field. Try to determine what went wrong with the component.
 Keep records so you can review previous service operations.
 Troubleshooting
 Have manufacturer's literature with you if possible
 Check all switches, fuses and circuit breakers
 Check if loads are connected properly
 Check for loose or disconnected wires
 Check voltage at the battery and array terminals on the controller
 If there is a voltage fault (low voltage or no voltage) start at module
connection boxes and follow all circuits with your multi - meter
 If you find a component that is not working, try replacing it.
 Check battery voltage with loads off, then on
 Use ohm meter to check resistance at each connection
 Use amp meter to check power generator output and load draw
Battery state low, low controller light on, automatic
disconnect turns load off

Possible cause How to fix

No solar charge Check and fix module connection
Battery electrolyte low Add distilled water
Bad connection between Check for broken wires
module/battery to controller
terminal
Defective battery or cell Check SOC of each cell, with
significant volt difference –replace
battery
Loose or corroded battery terminals Clean and tighten battery terminals
Season of the Year
(affects sunlight angle on the array)

SUN

Summer Winter
23° Equinox Equinox
(June) (December)
Amount of Sunlight
(affects output current)
Typical IV Curve - electrical
Current output of photovoltaic
Short cells or modules
Circuit
1000 W / m2 Clear
Sunny Day
I 500 W / m2 Hazy Day
with Clouds

250 W / m2 Very
Cloudy Day
Volts
Open
Circuit

V
Temperature
(affects output voltage)

Current
T = 0° C

I T = 25° C

T = 50° C
Voltage

V
 Current and Voltage Curves for
a Single Photovoltaic Cell

IV Curve
Short
Circuit Maximum Power Point
Current 3.15 (One Cell from a PWX 500 @ 25° C)
2.8
8 Power
Supplied
1.36 W
Open
Circuit
Voltage
0 .472 V .6 V
 The Photovoltaic Effect
 The phenomenon of making electricity with
light is caused by the interaction of light with
atoms in the photovoltaic cell.
 No one is sure what light actually is. It is not
something you can hold in your hand. You
can measure it though. Sometimes when it is
measured it acts like a wave and sometimes it
acts like a particle. When it acts like a particle
it is called a PHOTON.
 The Photovoltaic Effect
 A free electron is accelerated by the
electromagnetic field at the N-P Junction and is
pushed up through the N-type layer.
 The “hole” that was created is pushed through
the N-P junction finding itself in the P-type layer.
 A voltage drop appears between the two sides
of the N-P junction, and if connected to an
external circuit, a current is induced.
ELECTRICITY FROM LIGHT!!!
 Electrical Characteristics
of a Photovoltaic Cell

 The voltage created by the creation of the N-P

junction is .485 Volts, no matter how big or
how small the cell is.
 However, the amps that any one cell can
produce is a function of the size of the cell. A
10cm x 10cm photovoltaic cell (ex. PWX500)
produces about 3 amps at 25° C (1000 W/m2).
 Getting cells together

After the N-P Junction is created, an anti-

reflective coating is applied to the cell.
After the anti-reflective coating, the thin
grid of metal is applied to the top (18%)
and bottom of the cell. These are the
conductors for the electrons.
Finally, the cells are connected together
with thin ribbons of wire.
 Wiring Photovoltaic Cells in Series to
obtain the voltage

+ Peak Power
- I
Peak Power (one module
+ (one cell 1.36 W) 50 Watts)

- Volts
36 Cells

+
-
0.6 21
Volts Volts