SENSORS

a.k.a.
Interfacing to the Real World:
Review of Electrical Sensors and
Actuators

Andrew Mason
Associtate Professor, ECE

Teach: Microelectronics (analog & digital integrated Circ., VLSI)

Biomedical Engineering (instrumentation)
Research: Integrated Microsystems (on-chip sensors & circuits)

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.1

 Transducers
• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic,
optical, chemical, etc.
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
– a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
– acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
– a device that generates a signal or stimulus

sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world actuator system

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.2

 Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
– convert desired parameter into electrically measurable
signal
• General Electronic Sensor
– primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into
electrical signal
– secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog
or digital values real primary analo secondary usable
world transducer values
g transducer
signal
sensor

• Typical Electronic Sensor System

input
signal sensor data microcontroller network
(measurand)
sensor signal processing display
analog/digital
communication

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.3

Example Electronic Sensor Systems
• Components vary with application
– digital sensor within an instrument
• microcontroller sensor µC keypad
– signal timing signal timing
sensor memory display
– data storage handheld instrument

– analog sensor analyzed by a PC

sensor interface e.g., RS232
PC
sensor A/D, communication
signal processing comm. card

– multiple sensors displayed over

internet
internet
sensor sensor
sensor bus sensor bus
processor PC processor
comm. comm.
comm. card

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.4

 Primary Transducers
• Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
– thermocouple: temperature difference
– compass (magnetic): direction
• Microelectronic Sensors
millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
– photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
• infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
– piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
– microaccelerometers: vibration, ∆-velocity (car
crash)
– chemical senors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
– DNA arrays: match DNA sequences
ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.5
 Example Primary Transducers
• Light Sensor
– photoconductor
• light  R

– photodiode
• light  I

– membrane pressure sensor

• resistive (pressure   R)
• capacitive (pressure  C)

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.6

 Displacement Measurements
• Measurements of size, shape, and position utilize
displacement sensors
• Examples
– diameter of part under stress (direct)
– movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid
movement through the heart (indirect)

• Primary Transducer Types

– Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)
– Inductive Sensors
– Capacitive Sensors
– Piezoelectric Sensors

• Secondary Transducers
– Wheatstone Bridge
– Amplifiers

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.7

 Strain Gage: Gage Factor
• Remember: for a strained thin wire
– R/R = L/L – A/A + /
• A =  (D/2)2, for circular wire
D L
• Poisson’s ratio, : relates change in diameter D to
change in length L
– D/D = - L/L
• Thus
– R/R = (1+2) L/L + /
dimensional effect piezoresistive effect

• Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate

materials

– G = R/R = (1+2) + /

L/L L/L
ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.8
 Temperature Sensor Options
• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
– Platinum, Nickel, Copper metals are typically used
– positive temperature coefficients
• Thermistors (“thermally sensitive resistor”)
– formed from semiconductor materials, not metals
• often composite of a ceramic and a metallic oxide (Mn, Co, Cu or Fe)
– typically have negative temperature coefficients
• Thermocouples
– based on the Seebeck effect: dissimilar metals at diff. temps. 
signal

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.9

 Fiber-optic Temperature Sensor
• Sensor operation
– small prism-shaped sample of single-crystal undoped GaAs
attached to ends of two optical fibers
– light energy absorbed by the GaAs crystal depends on
temperature
– percentage of received vs. transmitted energy is a function
of temperature
• Can be made small enough for biological
implantation

GaAs semiconductor temperature probe

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.10

 Example MEMS Transducers
• MEMS = micro-electro-mechanical system
– miniature transducers created using IC fabrication
processes
• Microaccelerometer
– cantilever beam
– suspended mass

Electrodes

• Rotation
Ring
structure

– gyroscope

• Pressure Diaphragm (Upper electrode)

Lower electrode 5-10mm

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.11

 Passive Sensor Readout Circuit
• Photodiode Circuits

• Thermistor Half-Bridge
– voltage divider
– one element varies

• Wheatstone Bridge
– R3 = resistive sensor
– R4 is matched to nominal value of R3 VCC
– If R1 = R2, Vout-nominal = 0
– Vout varies as R3 changes
R1+R4

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.12

 Operational Amplifiers
•Properties
– open-loop gain: ideally infinite: practical values 20k-200k
•high open-loop gain  virtual short between + and - inputs
– input impedance: ideally infinite: CMOS opamps are close to
ideal
– output impedance: ideally zero: practical values 20-100
– zero output offset: ideally zero: practical value <1mV
– gain-bandwidth product (GB): practical values ~MHz
•frequency where open-loop gain drops to 1 V/V
•Commercial opamps provide many different properties
– low noise
– low input current
– low power
– high bandwidth
– low/high supply voltage
– special purpose: comparator, instrumentation amplifier

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.13

 Basic Opamp Configuration
• Voltage Comparator
– digitize input

• Voltage Follower
– buffer

• Non-Inverting Amp • Inverting Amp

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.14

 More Opamp Configurations
• Summing Amp

• Differential Amp

• Integrating Amp

• Differentiating Amp

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.15

 Converting Configuration
• Current-to-Voltage

• Voltage-to-Current

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.16

 Instrumentation Amplifier
• Robust differential
gain amplifier gain stage

• Input stage
– high input impedance input stage
• buffers gain stage
– no common mode gain
– can have differential gain

• Gain stage
– differential gain, low input impedance total differential gain
2 R2  R1  R4 
• Overall amplifier Gd   
R1  R3 
– amplifies only the differential component
• high common mode rejection ratio
– high input impedance suitable for biopotential electrodes with
high output impedance

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.17

Instrumentation Amplifier w/ BP
Filter

instrumentation amplifier HPF non-inverting amp

With 776 op amps, the circuit was found to have a CMRR of 86 dB at 100 Hz and a noise level of 40
mV peak to peak at the output. The frequency response was 0.04 to 150 Hz for ±3 dB and was flat
over 4 to 40 Hz. The total gain is 25 (instrument amp) x 32 (non-inverting amp) = 800.

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.18

 Connecting Sensors to
Microcontrollers
sensor µC keypad
signal timing
sensor display
• Analog memory
instrument
– many microcontrollers have a built-in A/D
• 8-bit to 12-bit common
• many have multi-channel A/D inputs
• Digital
– serial I/O
• use serial I/O port, store in memory to analyze
• synchronous (with clock)
– must match byte format, stop/start bits, parity check, etc.
• asynchronous (no clock): more common for comm. than
data
– must match baud rate and bit width, transmission protocol,
etc.
– frequency encoded
• use timing port, measure pulse width or pulse frequency
ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.19
 Connecting Smart Sensors to
PC/Network
• “Smart sensor” = sensor with built-in signal processing & communication
– e.g., combining a “dumb sensor” and a microcontroller
• Data Acquisition Cards (DAQ)
– PC card with analog and digital I/O
– interface through LabVIEW or user-generated code
• Communication Links Common for Sensors
– asynchronous serial comm.
• universal asynchronous receive and transmit (UART)
– 1 receive line + 1 transmit line. nodes must match baud rate & protocol
• RS232 Serial Port on PCs uses UART format (but at +/- 12V)
– can buy a chip to convert from UART to RS232

– synchronous serial comm.

• serial peripheral interface (SPI)
– 1 clock + 1 bidirectional data + 1 chip select/enable

– I2C = Inter Integrated Circuit bus

• designed by Philips for comm. inside TVs, used in several commercial sensor systems
– IEEE P1451: Sensor Comm. Standard
• several different sensor comm. protocols for different applications

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.20

 Sensor Calibration
• Sensors can exhibit non-ideal effects
– offset: nominal output ≠ nominal parameter value
– nonlinearity: output not linear with parameter changes
– cross parameter sensitivity: secondary output variation with, e.g.,
temperature

• Calibration = adjusting output to match parameter

– analog signal conditioning
– look-up table r
linea T1
– digital calibration
• T = a + bV +cV2, ar
– T= temperature; V=sensor voltage; n o n -l i n e T2

offset
– a,b,c = calibration coefficients
• Compensation T3
– remove secondary sensitivities
– must have sensitivities characterized
– can remove with polynomial evaluation
• P = a + bV + cT + dVT + e V2, where P=pressure, T=temperature

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason Sensors p.21