By

BY
B.T 03/24/251
Chapter 7: Modulation and Multiplexing
6.1 Modulation

6.1.1 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

6.1.2 Frequency Modulation (FM)

6.1.3 Phase Modulation (PM)

6.2 Multiplexing

6.2.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing

6.2.2 Wavelength Division Multiplexing

6.2.3 Time Division Multiplexing

6.1Modulation
What is Modulation?
Modulation
 In the modulation process, some characteristic of a high-frequency carrier signal
(bandpass), is changed according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
information (baseband) signal.
Why Modulation
 Suitable for signal transmission (distance…etc)
 Multiple signals transmitted on the same channel
 Capacitive or inductive devices require high frequency AC input (carrier) to
operate.
 Stability and noise rejection
Application Examples
1.broadcasting of both audio and video signals.
2.Mobile radio communications, such as cell phone.
 Basic Modulation Types
1. Amplitude Modulation: changes the amplitude.
2. Frequency Modulation: changes the frequency.
3. Phase Modulation: changes the phase.
6.1.1 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Amplitude Modulation (AM) is the process by which the
amplitude of the carrier signal C(t) is modulated or
changed with respect to the modulating signal m(t) while
the frequency and phase are kept constant.
 Amplitude modulation is the simplest and earliest form of
transmitters.
 AM Modulation/Demodulation
Source Sink
Channel

Modulator Demodulator

Baseband Signal Bandpass Signal Original Signal

with frequency with frequency with frequency
fm fc fm
(Modulating Signal) (Modulated Signal)
fc >> fm
Voice: 300-3400Hz GSM Cell phone: 900/1800MHz
Carrier Signal: S ( t )=A
c c
cos(c t )
Modulating Message Signal: S
m
(t )  A
m
cos(m t )
Modulated AM Signal: S AM (t ) [ Ac  S m ( t )] cos(c t )
[ Ac  Am cos(m t )] cos(c t )
 Ac [1  k cos(m t )] cos(c t )
Am
Modulating Index: k=
Ac

 Modulation index k is a measure of the extent to which

a carrier signal is varied by the modulating signal.
 When k=0 no modulation,
 when k=1 means 100% modulation,
 when k>1 over modulation.
 When k< 1 Under modulation
• Mathematical expression for AM: time domain
S AM (t ) (1  k cos m t ) cos c t
• expanding this produces:

S AM (t ) cos  ct  k cos m t cos  ct

using : cos A cos B  1 2 cos( A  B )  cos( A  B )
• In the frequency domain this gives:
S AM (t ) cos  ct  k2 cos( c  m )t  k2 cos( c  m )t
BW USF  LSF m  c  (c  m ) 2c
Carrier, A=1.
Amplitude LSF USF
frequency

lower
sideband upper sideband
CSULB May 22, 2006 10
Advantages and disadvantages of AM
Advantages Disadvantages
It is simple to It is not efficient in
implement. terms of its power usage.
It can be demodulated using It is not efficient in terms of
a circuit consisting of very few its use of bandwidth,
components. requiring a bandwidth equal
to twice that of the highest
audio frequency.
AM receivers are very cheap It is prone to high levels of
as no specialized components noise because most noise is
are needed. amplitude based and
obviously AM detectors are
sensitive to it.
6.1.2 Frequency Modulation (FM)
• A type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier
signal is modulated (changed) in proportion to the message
signal while the amplitude and phase are kept constant.

• In FM the carrier amplitude remain constant the carrier

frequency varies.

• Frequency modulation is not only used in commercial radio

broadcasts, but also in hospital communications, emergency
channels, TV sound and wireless (cellular) telephone
systems.
Frequency modulation is one of the angle modulation in
which the instantaneous frequency varied linearly with
the message signal m(t):
• Message signal for Frequency Modulation is given by:
• Frequency deviation: difference between maximum
instantaneous frequency and normal carrier frequency.
We may thus define an approximate rule for the
transmission bandwidth for an FM signal generated by a
single tone modulating signal as follows:

Transmission Bandwidth
Advantages and
disadvantages
Advantages of FM
Disadvantages
Resilience to noise. FM has poorer spectral
efficiency than some other
modulation formats.
Easy to apply modulation at a Requires more complicated
low power stage of the demodulator.
transmitter.
It is possible to use efficient RF Some other modes have higher
amplifiers with frequency data spectral efficiency.
modulated signals.
Sidebands extend to infinity
either side:
Broadcast transmissions.
2.1 Phase
6.1.3 Modulation
Phase (PM)
Modulation (PM)
•A type of modulation where the phase of the carrier signal is varied
accordance to the low frequency of the message signal is known as
phase modulation.

•The phase change manifests itself as a frequency change but the

instantaneous frequency change is proportional to the derivative of the
amplitude.
In this method of modulation the amplitude and frequency of the
carrier wave remains maintained constant.
An important feature of angle modulation is that it can provide better

discrimination against noise and interference than AM.

The figure below shows a sinusoidal message signal that is to
be transmitted from an end to another, a carrier signal which is
to be phase modulated. And the last image in the figure
represents the phase modulated signal.
 when the amplitude of the sinusoidal signal starts to
increase and reaches the maximum value, then the
phase lead of the carrier signal gets increased.
 a compression in the carrier signal is noticed. This
resultantly increases the frequency of the signal.
 when the amplitude of the modulating signal starts
falling and attains a minimum value, then the phase
lag of the carrier wave occurs. Thereby resultantly
causing stretching of the signal. Due to this, the
frequency of the signal gets decreased.
• Mathematical Representation
c (t )=Ac cos(2 f c t )
m(t ) A
m
cos(2 f mt )

The equation for instantaneous phase can be given by

i k p m(t )
where k p represents phasesensetive
The standard equation of angle modulated wave is
S (t )  Ac cos(2 f c t  i )
S (t )  Ac cos(2 f c t  k p Am cos(2 f mt ))
where  represents phase modulation index
 = k p Am
• The term represents the angle of the carrier; the
constant represents the phase Sensitivity of the
modulator, expressed in radians per volt on the
assumption that m(t) is a voltage wave form.

• The phase modulated signal s(t) is thus described in the

time domain by:
6.1.4 Comparing of FM to PM
Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase Modulation (PM)
Frequency deviation is proportional Phase deviation is proportional to
to modulating signal m(t). modulating signal m(t).

Noise immunity is superior to PM Noise immunity better than AM but not

(and of course AM). FM.

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is better Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is not as good

than in PM. as in FM.

FM is widely used for commercial PM is primarily for some mobile radio
broadcast radio (88 MHz to 108 MHz). services.

Modulation index is proportional to Modulation index is proportional to

modulating signal m(t) as well as modulating signal m(t).
modulating frequency fm.
6.1.5. Comparison of FM (or PM) to AM
Frequency Modulation (FM) Amplitude Modulation (AM)
FM receivers have better noise AM receivers are very
immunity. susceptible to noise.
Noise immunity can be improved by No such option exists in AM.
increasing the frequency deviation.

Bandwidth requirement is greater Bandwidth is less than FM or

and depends upon modulation index PM and doesn’t depend upon a
modulation index.

FM (or PM) transmitters and AM transmitters and receivers

receivers are more complex than for are less complex than for FM
AM. (or PM).
All transmitted power is useful so Power is wasted in
FM is very efficient. transmitting the carrier and
6-2 Multiplexing
 Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater
than the bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can be shared.
 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the (simultaneous)
transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. As data and
telecommunications use increases, so does traffic.
 Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth to
achieve specific goals.
 Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing; i.e., sharing of the
bandwidth between multiple users.
 Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater
than the bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can be shared.
Figure 6.1 Dividing a link into channels
6.2.1 Need of Multiplexing
To reduce the number of electrical connections.
To share the bandwidth between the users.
To increase the capacity of channel.
To increase the transmission speed.
To make the signal secure.
To make cost efficiency.

31
6.2.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
• FDM divides the spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and

allocates one user to each channel.

• Independent message signals are translated into different frequency bands

using modulation techniques and the resulting signal is then transmitted along

the single channel by electromagnetic means.

• A number of signals can be carried simultaneously.

Each signal is modulated to a different carrier frequency

Carrier frequencies are sufficiently separated so signals do not overlap

(guard bands)

• Guard band is a frequency which is not used by either channel.

 Terminologies
• Channel (FDM): each modulated signal requires a certain
bandwidth centered on its carrier frequency, referred to as
a channel.
• Subcarrier: each of the multiple carriers is referred to as a
subcarrier. Its frequency is denoted by fi . fi must be
chosen so that the bandwidths of various signals do not
significantly overlap.

33
 Figure 6.4 FDM process

6.34
 Figure 6.5 FDM demultiplexing example

6.35
Example
1.Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed
together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need
for a guard band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent
interference?
Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the
required bandwidth is at least 5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in Figure bellow.
6.2.3 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
• Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is conceptually same as the
FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involves light
signals transmitted through fiber-optic channels.
• It is designed to utilize the high data rate capability of fiber-optic
cable.
• Very narrow band of light signal from different source are combined to
make a wider band of light.
• At the receiver the signals are separated with the help of a
demultiplexer.
• Multiplexing and demultiplexing of light signals can be done with the
help of a prism
• From the basic knowledge of physics we know that light signal is bent
by different amount based on the angle of incidence and wavelength of
light as shown by different colors in the figure.
WDM Long-Haul Optical Fiber Transmission System

Transmitter 1 Receiver
WDM “Routers”

DEMUX
2 MUX
Transmitter Receiver
Optical Amplifier
3
Transmitter Erbium/Raman Optical Amplifier Receiver
• The multiplexer combines (multiplexes) data from the n
input lines and transmits over a single data link(medium).
• The demultiplexer separates (demultiplexes) the data
according to channel, and delivers data to the appropriate
output lines.
• One prism performs the role of a multiplexer by combining
lights having different frequencies from different sources.
• The composite signal can be transmitted through an optical
fiber cable over long distances, if required.
• At the other end of the optical fiber cable the composite
signal is applied to another prism to do the reverse operation,
the function of a demultiplexer.
• Light has different wavelength (colors).

• In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals are

multiplexed into an optical fiber by using different wavelengths.

• This is an analog multiplexing technique and is done

conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light as
signals.
6.2.4 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
In frequency division multiplexing, all signals operate at the same time
with different frequencies, but in Time-division multiplexing all
signals operate with same frequency at different times.
.
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-
rate digital channels into one high-rate one.

TDM is the time interleaving of samples from several sources so that

the information from these sources can be transmitted serially over a
single communication channel.

Sharing of the signal is accomplished by dividing available

transmission time on a medium among users.
Time division multiplexing comes in two basic forms:
i. Synchronous time division multiplexing, and
ii. Statistical, or asynchronous time division
multiplexing
I. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
• Data rate of medium exceeds data rate of digital signal to be
transmitted
• Multiple digital signals interleaved in time
• Time slots pre-assigned to sources and fixed
• Time slots allocated even if no data
• Time slots do not have to be evenly distributed among sources
• ISDN telephone lines are common examples of synchronous time
division multiplexing.

43
 Example 2
• 2. In above figure the data rate for each one of the 3 input
connection is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit
is 1 bit), what is the duration of (a) each input slot, (b) each
output slot, and (c) each frame?

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This means that the
bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The duration of the input time slot is
1 ms (same as bit duration).
b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the input time
slot. This means that the duration of the output time slot is 1/3 ms.
c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the duration of a frame
is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms.
Note: The duration of a frame is the same as the duration of an input unit.
II. Asynchronous (Statistical ) TDM

• In Synchronous TDM many slots are wasted.

• Statistical TDM allocates time slots dynamically based on demand

• Multiplexer scans input lines and collects data until frame full

• Data rate on line lower than aggregate rates of input lines.

The difference between synchronous TDM and asynchronous TDM

i. many slots remain un utilized in case synchronous TDM, but the

slots are fully utilized leading to smaller time for transmission
and better utilization of bandwidth of the medium.

ii. In case of statistical TDM, the data in each slot must have an
address part, which identifies the source of data. 45
• In statistical time division multiplexing, slots are dynamically allocated
to improve bandwidth efficiency.
• Here, number of slots in each frame is less than the number of input
lines. The number of time slots are used when they require and delete
them when they are idle.
Advantages of TDM
1)TDM uses single link.
2) Use of capacity is high.
3)Easy to expand the number of users on a system simply and at a low cost.
Disadvantages of TDM
1) Sensitivity to user problem is high.
2) Noise problem 3) Technical complexity is more.
Synchronous TDM Asynchronous TDM

In this, multiplexer allocates same time slots multiplexer does not allocates same time
to each device without considering fact that slots to each device without considering
device contains data or not. device contains data or not.

Number of slots per frame are equal to Number of slots per frame are less than
number of input lines i.e., If it contains n number of input lines i.e., If there are n
input lines, then it must have n slots in one input lines, then there are m slots in one
frame. frame (m<n).
There is no guarantee that full capacity link There is guarantee that full capacity link
is used. is used.
Total speed of input lines cannot be greater Total speed of input lines can be greater
than capacity of path. than capacity of path.
Usage of devices is less. Usage of devices is more.
Number of time slots in a frame is always
Number of time slots in a frame as always
based on statistical analysis of number of
based on number of input lines.
input lines.
Time slots are fixed and pre-defined. Time-slots are not pre-defined.
Thank You