UNIT - IV

MOTIVATION

Dr. Rajesh Kumar

Asst. Professor

Department of psychology
P.G. Govt. College, Sector-46, Chandigarh
E-mail: [email protected]
What is motivation?
Why motivation?
Importance of motivation
Types of Motivation
Better motivation
How to be motivated?
 Self motivation

• Do it now
• Break up the task into small steps
• Don’t wait for mood or inspiration
• Start action
• Solutions will follow if you try
 What is Motivation
The term motivation literally means
to move or to energize or to activate.
In this way anything that is
responsible for internal or external
activity may be called motivation.
An inferred process within an animal
or an individual that causes the
organism to move towards a goal
Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and
maintains goal-oriented behaviours. It is what
causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of
water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain
knowledge.
Motivation involves the biological, emotional,
social, and cognitive forces that activate
behaviour.
“A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates,
or moves and directs or channels behaviour
goals.” - Berelson and Steiner
Motivation is an urge to perform a particular act, to
obtain a certain object or to produce a desired
outcome – Teitelbaum (1966)
Motivation refers to the internal process that can’t be
directly observed but that activates, guides and
maintains an overt behavior – Baron (1995)
From definitions it can be derived that:
1. Motivation is an inner feeling which energizes a
person to work more.
2. The emotions or desires of a person prompt him
for doing a particular work.
3. There are unsatisfied needs of a person which
disturb his equilibrium.
4. A person moves to fulfil his unsatisfied needs
by conditioning his energies.
5. There are dormant energies in a person which
are activated by channelizing them into actions.
 Motivational cycle
Need, Drive
Relief

Instrumental
Behavior

Goal
(a) Need: a lack or deficit within the individual.
Two types-
(i) Physiological needs- becoz of tissue/bodily
needs i.e. food, water, air etc.
(ii) Social needs- for affection, recognition,
prestige
Every individual has some or the other need and the
satisfaction or dissatisfaction affects the
behavior.
Need/drive are internal conditions and incentive is
an object in external environment.
(b) Instrumental behavior- any behavior is
instrumental if it satisfies a need or drive or
motive. Eg. Crying of a kid etc.

(c) Goal and Incentive- Behavior is directed towards

goal and when the goal is achieved the need, drive
or motive is satisfied. Eg. Hungerness

(d) Relief- After the goal is achieved, individual

needs are fulfilled and thus relief is achieved.
 Ways to stay motivated
• Regularly review your goals and progress.
• Continue to set new goals.
• Keep the momentum up.
• Find mentors – a mentor is someone who is
experienced in the habit you want to change.

• Surround yourself with positive people.

• Use exercise as one of your daily goals to
improve your mental health.
 Characteristics of Motivation
1. Motivation is an answer to ‘why’ of behavior.
2. Motivation is internal process that can’t be
directly observed.
3. Motivation is an energizer or activator.
4. Motivation directs our behavior.
5. Responses in motivation process are overt.
6. Motivation is always goal oriented.
7. Motivation regulates behavior by initiating it
when it is needed and terminating when the goal
is achieved.
8. It is energy mobilization.
9. Variability i.e. continuous changes and
variations are produced in motives in the
view of attaining goals.
10. Restlessness persists in the motivated
behavior until the goal is achieved.
 Types of Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation: People participate in activity
for their own enjoyment not for the reward it will
get them and the act is self satisfying, interesting
etc. It comes from within the person.
Extrinsic Motivation: People participate in an
activity for a tangible reward. It refers to money,
food, public recognition. They are energizers
which guide behavior so as to obtain some
external rewards.
 PHYSIOLOGICAL MOTIVES
These are basic, inborn, biological drives with
which every member of the species begins life.
They are call primary needs because they are vital
to life and essential requirements for living life.
They are necessary for survival. They are also
called biological needs because they have
biological origins i.e. their origin lies somewhere
in the body of the organism.
 HUNGER
Body needs energy and energy comes from food.
Whenever there is a feeling of contraction in the
stomach or one reports weakness or light
headache there is a need to eat food.
Specific food needs are not becoz of hunger but
because of preferences.
An experiment done by Canon, Washburn and
Carlson (1916)
Figure 9.2

FIGURE 9.2 In Walter Cannon’s early study of hunger, a simple apparatus was used to simultaneously
record hunger pangs and stomach contractions.
• Glucose- the form of sugar that circulates in the
blood provides major source of energy for body
tissues and when its level is low, we feel hunger.

 Hunger is influenced by incentives, which are

external stimuli such as sight, smell, or thinking
about food that motivate goal-directed behaviors.

• Important factor in hunger drive is neural when the

information of contraction in stomach, the rate of
sugar in blood reaches hypothalamus and cortex,
the hunger drive takes place. When the
hypothalamus is stimulated hunger increases.
 Hypothalamus
• Brain structure; regulates many aspects of
motivation and emotion, including hunger,
thirst, and sexual behavior.
• Lateral Hypothalamus: If turned on, an animal
will begin eating; if destroyed, an animal will
never eat again!
• Ventromedial Hypothalamus: Stops eating
behavior
FIGURE 9.3 Location of the hypothalamus in the human brain.
Figure 9.4

FIGURE 9.4 This is a cross section through the middle of the brain (viewed from the front of the brain).
Indicated areas of the hypothalamus are associated with hunger and the regulation of body weight.
 Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosa - a serious eating disorder that
is associated with an intense fear of weight gain
and a distorted body image.
bulimia nervosa - an eating disorder characterized
by binges of eating followed by self-induced
vomiting.
muscle dysmorphia - a disorder generally seen in
young men involving an obsessive concern with
muscle size.
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are more
common in females
Muscle dysmorphia is more common in young males.
 THIRST
Water is necessary for survival as food but we can
live without food but not without water.
Dryness of throat, taste a good beverage.
Loss of water from cells causes dehydration.
Osmoreceptors are the hypothalamus nerve cells
which generate nerve impulses when they are
dehydrated. These nerve impulses act as a signal
for thirst.
Reduction in the volume of the blood causes the
drive to drink becoz of the release of hormone
known as Angiotensin II.
 SLEEP AND REST
Sleep is also an important need of the body- a need
that must be satisfied at periodic intervals. Whenever
a person works, fatigue arises which is reduced by
sleep.
Reticular formation in the brain conduct the sleeping
and working function. If a specific part of reticular
formation is stimulated the man sleeps and wakes.
Primary need for sleep often becomes closely
associated with such accompanying factors as
darkness, a certain kind of bed, and other situations.
 SEXUAL MOTIVATION
Motivation engage individual in various forms of sexual
activity.
Sex is not necessary to maintain the life of an individual,
although it is necessary for the survival of the species.
Sexual motivation depends on sex hormones. The
hormones organize the brain and body of developing
people and lower animals so that they have male or
female characteristics.
Sex hormones is produced by gonads which are primary
sex glands and sex hormones like estrogen and
testosterone exert activational effects.
 REGULATION OF TEMPERATURE
It is the biological need to avoid extremes of heat or
cold. There is need to maintain and regulate
normal body temperature. Hypothalamus in the
brain regulates the temp.
Whenever the body temperature dips down the
normal body shivers so as to produce heat and
when body temp shoots up we perspire a lot
producing sweat which on evaporation causes
coldness lowering of temp, bring the temp back to
normal hence, homeostasis is maintained.
Homeostasis : Body equilibrium; balance
 PSYCHOLOGICAL MOTIVES
Psychological motives are so called because they
are basically caused due to some psychological
need and are not based on physical needs.
Urge to escape: In adverse situations we have an
urge to run for safety and shelter and to escape
from any threatening situation. Also known as
Emergency Motives. emergency motives are as:
Situation Goal Motive Emotional state
Danger Safety Escape Fear
Restraint Freedom Combat Anger
Obstacle Mastery Effort Determination
Prey Capture Pursuit Eagerness
Humour: There is psychological need to laugh so as
to deal with life’s tension and laughing is a
universal phenomenon. It is relieving, make us
feel light and relaxed and help us to take life
positive.

Need to have purpose: The word purpose is used

broadly to cover any action directed towards a
goal. This need is basic to all individuals as no
one lives a purposeless life, everyone has a goal, a
wish, achievement and success in life. Purpose
can be most definite and most powerful motive.
Force of habit: It is persistence of a particular way
of satisfying a given motive. Psychologically need
of cleanliness and usual daily habits at home and
at work place etc.

Need to maintain self-esteem: Esteem relates to the

need to develop a sense of worth by knowing that
others are aware of one’s competence and value.
Most people will go to great length to maintain a
favourable view of themselves.
Curiosity and Exploration: Curiosity is both
exploratory and manipulative. Exploration is to
learn about the envt. by investigation and
manipulation. Some people are “Sensation
seekers” becoz they are prone to search for
especially exciting stimuli and situations.
 SOCIAL MOTIVES
These motives are learned in social groups like
family and they involve other people. Social
motives are learned so their strength differs
greatly from one individual to another.
The sort of social motives will activate in an
individual who is dependent upon his own social
experience, which is unique to himself and
depends upon his ways of perceiving things, his
personality make up, learning, intelligence etc.
Some of the social motives are:
 Need for Achievement
• People who have a high need for achievement:
– Prefer activities that offer some, but not too much, challenge
– Enjoy tasks where they are personally responsible for the
outcome
– Prefer tasks where feedback on their performance is available
• Gender differences in achievement have been found by
HORNER (1972) who suggested that women actually feared
success but Cherry et al. (1975) said that it is not fear of
success but fear of social rejection that makes them low
achievers.
• Atkinson & Atkinson said that person with high
achievement have two tendencies- (a) Tendency to achieve
success (b) Tendency to avoid failure
Achievement Motive- desire to accomplish
difficult tasks and meet standards of excellence.
First studied by McClelland (1953).
It is a manifest (easily perceived) need that
concerns individuals’ issues of excellence,
competition, challenging goals, persistence, and
overcoming difficulties.
 Power Motives
Motivation to be in charge, have high status and
exert influence over others is power motivation. It
is the ability or capacity of a person to produce
intended effects on the behavior or emotions of
another person. The goals of power motivation are
to influence, control, persuade, lead, charm others
and to enhance one’s own reputation in the eyes
of other people.
People with a high need for power do not deal well
with frustration and conflict—show strong stress
responses, including high blood pressure.
 Gregariousness
It refers to keep in contact with others. It is tendency
to live in a group. Among human beings it is
acquired and it is seen that every man needs other
man’s co-operation because it makes wok
convenient.
 Aggression Motivation
Any behaviour that is intended to harm another
individual by physical or verbal means.
Any form of behaviour directed toward the goal of
harming or injuring another living being who is
motivated to avoid such treatment.
Aggression is innate and human beings possess a
powerful in built tendency to harm others.
Moreover, aggression has been found to be
learned in culture.
 Imitation
It is a common knowledge that a child learns his
activities, habits and behavior by imitating others.
The power of imitation is stronger in human
beings because they can make more minute
distinctions. This capacity varies with the capacity
of imitation in the individuals.
 Sympathy/Empathy
Seeing another person in serious trouble, a
sympathetic person experiences a similar though
less intense feeling. Some people cannot keep
back their tears when they see another person
crying, or on hearing a tragic story. This is
empathizing i.e. understanding and feeling the
pain and anguish of others.
 Affiliation Motivation
Need for Affiliation - A
manifest (easily perceived)
need that concerns an
individual’s need to establish
and maintain warm, close,
intimate relationships with
other people.
A person with a need for
friendly relationships with
others and is motivated with
interaction with others.
 Theories of Motivation

Maslow believed that lower needs in the hierarchy are dominant. Basic needs must be
satisfied before growth motives are fully expressed. Desires for self actualization are
reflected in various meta needs.
 Abraham Maslow and Needs
 The most basic needs are the physiological
needs such as needs for water, food, sleep, sex
and the like.

 Safety needs that people need a safety, secure

environment in order to function effectively.

 Love and belongingness needs include the need

to obtain and give affection and to be a
contributing member of some group or society.
 Esteem relates to the need to develop a sense
of self-worth by knowing that others are
aware of one’s competence and value.
 Self-actualization is a state of self-
fulfillment in which people realize their
highest potential in their own unique way.
 But how to validate the ordering of the stages
and how to measure self-actualization
objectively.
 Murray’s Need Theory of
Motivation
• Assumptions
– People can adapt to their changing environment
– Human behavior is goal directed
– Internal and external factors affect behavior
– People learn from interactions with their
environment
– Preconception of future affect behavior now
 Murray’s Theory (Cont.)

• Needs
– Basic to Murray's theory
– Hypothetical concept: helps explain observable
differences in behavior
– “Invisible link” between a stimulus and a person’s
reaction to the stimulus
 Murray’s Theory (Cont.)
• Types of needs
– Physical needs
• Satisfaction of basic physical processes
• Need for food, air, water, sex
– Psychological needs
• Focus on emotional and mental
satisfaction
• Example: the need for social interaction
or to achieve difficult goals
 Murray’s Theory (Cont.)
• Some needs in Murray's theory
– n Order: organize and systematically arrange
objects; be clean, neat, and tidy
– n Achievement: attain difficult goals; perform
as well as possible
– n Recognition: receive credit for actions; to
seek honors and recognition

The small n in front of the name of each need is

the psychologist’s abbreviation for the word need.
 Murray’s Theory (Cont.)
• Some needs in Murray's theory (cont.)
– n Dominance: influence others; affect the
direction of a group
– n Deference: respect authority; admire a person
with authority
– n Autonomy: be independent and not be
influenced by others
– n Affiliation: associate with others, have friends,
and join groups
 Murray’s Theory (Cont.)

• Characteristics of needs
– Latent internal characteristics activated by a
stimulus
– A person tries to behave in a way that satisfies an
activated need

Strong need for affiliation:

Meet someone you like and start talking
to the person
 Murray’s Theory (Cont.)

• Characteristics of needs (cont.)

– Needs may show rhythmic patterns over time
• Manager could satisfy a Need for Dominance in
relationships with subordinates
• Same manager is subordinate to someone else in the
organization
• Engages in behavior directed at the Need for Deference
 Murray’s Theory (Cont.)

• Characteristics of needs (Cont.)

– Opposite needs and behavior
• Need for Dominance in work role, especially a manager
or supervisor
• Need for Deference in non work (family) role

Work Non work

Need for Need for

Dominance Deference
 Murray’s Theory (Cont.)

• Characteristics of needs (Cont.)

– Multiple needs and behavior
• One need is primary; other need serves the primary
• Need for Achievement and Need for Affiliation
• Example: joining student organizations. Such
activities are important for finding a good job

serves
Need for Affiliation Need for Achievement
 Murray’s Theory (Cont.)
• Implications
– Understand own and other’s behavior
– Needs vary in importance among people
– Directs people’s behavior toward or away from
objects
– Such knowledge can help managers’ shape a
motivation system
– Help us understand behavior we see
McClelland’s Motivation Theory
• McClelland and colleagues studied the
behavioral effects of three needs
– Need for Achievement
– Need for Power
– Need for Affiliation

• Emphasized the Need for Achievement,

although they investigated all three needs
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Product of an impressive long-running

research program
• Controversy over measurement methods
• Recent study shows the validity of different
measures
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Strong need for achievement people

– Take responsibility for results of behavior
– Willing to take calculated risks
– Set moderate achievement goals
– Prefer to set performance standards for themselves
– Prefer non routine tasks to routine assignments
– Welcome feedback about how well they are doing
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Acquire the Need for Achievement through

socialization to cultural values
• Presence of Need for Achievement themes in
folklore, mythology, art
• Need for Achievement societies had high
levels of economic development
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Strong Need for Power people

– Focuses on "controlling the means of influencing
the behavior of another person”
– Having strong effects on other people
– Means of influence: anything available to the
person to control the behavior of another
– Actively searches for means of influence

Example: use superior-subordinate relationship

or external rewards to control the behavior of another
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Two ways of expressing the Need for Power

– Dominance, physical aggression, exploitation
• View situations from a win-lose perspective
• Must win and the other party must lose
– Did not feel such power behavior resulted in the
type of leadership required by organizations
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Two ways of expressing the Need for Power

(cont.)
– Persuasion and interpersonal influence
• Tries to arouse confidence in those he or she wants to
influence
• Clarifies group’s goals and persuades members to
achieve those goals
• Emphasizes group members’ ability to reach goals
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Two ways of expressing the Need for Power

(cont.)
• Tries to develop a competence belief in group members
• McClelland felt this type of power behavior
characterized effective leaders in organizations
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Strong Need for Affiliation people

– Focuses on "establishing, maintaining, and
restoring positive affective relations with others"
– Want close, warm interpersonal relationships
– Seek the approval of others, especially those about
whom they care
– Like other people, want other people to like them,
and want to be in the company of others
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Need for achievement and behavior

– Money: important to both high and low achievers,
but for different reasons
• High achiever wants concrete feedback about
performance
• Making a profit, or receiving a bonus, is a statement
about success or failure
• Symbol of success and feedback about job performance
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Need for achievement and behavior (cont.)

• High achiever wants a challenging job and
responsibility for work
• Want to feel successful at doing something over which
they have control
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Need for achievement and behavior (cont.)

– Low achiever views monetary reward as an end in
itself
– Get increased performance from low Need for
Achievement person by rewarding with money
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Managers and executives usually have a

stronger Need for Achievement than people in
other occupations
• Evidence points to strong Need for
Achievement as an entrepreneur characteristic
• Nature of Need for Achievement behavior fits
well with such role demands
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Need for Achievement and Need for Power:

some relationships
– Strong Need for Achievement person
• Task centered
• Future oriented
• Performs to internal standard of excellence
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Need for Achievement and Need for Power:

some relationships (cont.)
– Strong Need for Power person
• Draws attention
• Risk taking
• Present oriented
• Assesses situations for change potential
McClelland’s Motivation Theory (Cont.)

• Need for Achievement and Need for Power:

some relationships (cont.)
– Both types of people important for successful
organizations
– Strong Need for Achievement managers keep an
organization going
– Strong Need for Power people bring dramatic
change and innovation
 References
https://www.briantracy.com/blog/personal-succes
s/26-motivational-quotes-for-success
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https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/
entrepreneurship/motivation-
entrepreneurship/motivation-meaning-
definition-nature-and-types/53285
Questions