• International Studies= IR + Cultural, Scientific, Economic Areas

sometimes with relational and comparative contexts

• International Affairs= IR + other aspects of the world
• International Diplomacy- Focus on Diplomacy
• International Law
• Sub-areas of International Relations- International Politics,
International Economics, International Organisations
 International Relations
Three Aspects:-
1. Situation
Interaction between two or more actors in separate national
boundaries includes war, peace, treaties, conferences etc.
2. Principle
Set of ideas that constitute the public policy that a state makes for the
purpose of the external context. Foreign policy followed by the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs
3. Discipline
 Academic Discipline
• Morton Kaplan- criteria for a discipline:
1. A set of skills and techniques (methodology)
2. A body of theory and propositions
3. A subject matter
Stanley Hoffmann – Can distinguish IR for analytical purpose. Therefore
a discipline
Hoffman (1977) defines IR as,
“The discipline …concerned with the factors and the activities which
affect the external policies and power of the basic units into which the
world is divided.”
 Development of the Discipline
• IR in earlier forms
International relations was discussed in various civilisations Sun Tzu’s
Art of War, Kautilya’s Arthasastra, Greek Thucydides etc.
• One of the youngest Social Sciences
• Part of other disciplines like History, Political Science, Economics etc.
An interdisciplinary subject
• Impetus to IR
1. Industrial Revolution
2. Improvement in Means of Transport and Communication
3. Scientific and Technological Revolutions
• Emerged after the First World War in North America and Europe
• Studied in detail in Inter-War period
• Establishment of Chairs in Universities
• Writing of Books- Academic Contribution
• Research Bodies like Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1910
• Establishment of League of Nations helped in its Study
• Failure of League of nations led to critical analytical thought
• Second-World War- Military installations in different parts of the world
and therefore need for area studies
• Again a utopian approach was adopted- UN as a means to prevent war
• End of Second World War- Nuclear Technology, establishment of United
Nations, Decolonisation
• UNESCO Conference in 1948- Encouraged universities to teach IR
• Development of International Organisations, Growing Environmental
Concerns
• Formation of International Law
• In Afro-Asian Countries after the Second World War
• IR not confined to Europe and US after decolonisation- Horizontal
expansion of IR
• North South Divide- Domination of Europe and US in formation of IR
theories and practical aspects
 Why study IR?
• For human survival
• For human progress
• What conditions to be encouraged?
• What conditions discouraged?
• To promote international harmony
• IR provides an objective and systemic approach to international
problems
Actors
 Actors in International relations
• Interaction of man in a society
• Interaction of communities
• Interaction of Kingdoms
• Interaction of nations is IR
• No State can live in Isolation- Movement of Resources, Goods and
People
• Therefore, IR not only about interaction but also interdependence
• State not the only actor but also MNCs, IOs etc.
• Impact on Individuals
 Approaches to IR
• Hedley Bull- Two approaches:-
1. Classical Approach- Derives from history, political science, philosophy
etc.
Does not emphasise on theories because theories are inconclusive
2. Scientific Approach- Logical and empirical study- Developing a
theory of IR
 Theories of IR
• System Theory
• Game Theory
• Communication Theory
• Realism
• Liberalism
• Constructivism
 System Theory
• System as a central theme
• An International System after WW II
• Stanley Hoffmann- International system “is a pattern of relations
between the basic units of world politics, which is characterised by the
scope of the objectives pursued by these units and of the tasks
performed among them, as well as by the means used in order to
achieve those goals and perform those tasks”.
• Two aspects:
1. Pattern of relations
2. Objectives and means to achieve goals
• 1957- ‘System and Process in International Politics’- Morton Kaplan
recognised six international systems:-
1. Balance of Power- Increase capabilities through negotiations- 19 th century
Europe- till First World War
2. Loose Bipolar two blocs, Non-Aligned countries
3. Tight bipolar- each bloc dominated by a power
4. Universal- hypothethical model- federalism- world under an IO
5. Hierarchical- All nations under the control of Superpower
6. Unit veto systems- multipolarity-each state equally powerful
• Criticised as arbitrary and not practical classification
• Previous international systems: Ancient China, Roman Empire etc.
• Modern international system- bipolarity, multipolarity, regions
• International Subsystems and Subordinate State Systems- E.g. different
regions
Game Theory or Interactive Decision
Theory
• John Von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern- 1944- The Theory of Games and
Economic Behaviour
• 1950s Political Science
• 1960s Coalitional Bargaining- Coalition formation
• 1980s John Nash-Application of Game theory in Economics
• International politics as a game- rules change and openly violated- Thomas
Schelling in the Book ‘The Strategy of Conflict’
• Rational Players/Decision Makers- Maximum Benefit- Minimum Loss- Many
Alternatives
• Strategy- Maximisation and Minimisation (Minimax policy)
• Conflict – Opposing interests
• Provides models for studying world politics- Cooperation/Conflict
• Zero sum game- one party loses what the other gains- Cold War period
• Variable Sum-Game (Mixed Motive)- Karl Deutsch- The Analysis of
International Relations- Win something but at the same time
collectively stand to gain or lose something
• Janus K. Zawodny- Multiparty zero sum game- international conflicts
today can be resolved by situations in which neither side loses or
sometimes both win.
• Prisoners Dilemma
• Morton Kaplan- Limited applicability- International politics is an
unending game and games have an end
Prisoners’ Dilemma
 ISRAEL Do Not Attack
Attack

IRAN Stop Outcome 1 Outcome 2

Continue Outcome 3 Outcome 4

 Communications Theory
• Transmission of ideas, information, skills and technology- closer
contacts among peoples, within as well as between nations
• Useful for international cooperation and sharing of information
between States
• Gives meaning to revolution in communications and its impact on
human behaviour and world affairs
• Constructing maps of mail flow, trade, airline traffic, exchanges of
diplomats, other instances of state interaction- one can observe
communication models, clusters and isolates
 Idealism
• International relations not only about war- Peace and order are also
part of international relations.
• Idealism as a school of thought after 14 point Agenda for global
peace declared by President Woodrow Wilson post- First World War
• 14th Century Italian poet Dante envisaged a world State in his poem
“Universality of State”
• Sanskrit- Vasudeva Kutumbakam- World as a Family
• Idealist School supports formation of world state
• Encourages international law, international organisations and
international morality.
• Due to UN and other International Institutions Idealists believe a
World Society is being formed.
 Realism
• Most influential theory of IR
• No room for morality or law
• International relations is a struggle for power among states- International
relations is a “story of great power politics”.
• Anarchy in International system- Absence of a central authority- Thomas
Hobbes- States have to save themselves to survive- Threats to survival are
foreign invasion- and they can survive if they maximise:
1. National Interest –“A set of objectives a nation has articulated as its principal
targets in its external relations”
2. National power – “Refers to National Values, Economic Riches or National
Wealth and the occupation of a vantage position in the international
community.”
3. Military Strategy- uses to gain more power
• View IO also a means to gain power
• States bound by coercion or consent
• International law is followed if it meets the material interest of States.
• Proponents:
Thucydides:-
1. State as a principal actor
2. State as a unitary actor
3. Decision makers as rational
4. Security- economic power and forming alliance
St. Augustine- Man is selfish, egoistic, flawed
Niccolo Machiavelli- The Prince- Personal Security and Security of State
Sun Tzu- Art of War
Kautilya- Arthasastra
Thomas Hobbes- Leviathan- International Anarchy- State of Nature – Right to preserve themselves-
Similarly each State a international level- Struggle for power is continuous- No higher power
E H Carr
Von Clausewitz
• Hans J. Morgenthau Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and
Peace- Principles of Realism
1. Part of human nature to live, propagate and dominate
2. Power relations control political action- Distinction between political
and non-political – Power means man’s control over the minds and
actions of other men- Political power is ‘the mutual relations of control
among holders of public authority and between the latter and the
people at large- a psychological relation\
3. International politics is a struggle for power
4. Statesmen must think in terms of national interest
5. Rejection of a legalistic approach to international politics- both IL and
IP as separate
6. Rejects a moralistic approach to politics
7. Emphasis on concept of balance of power
• Traditional Realists:
Machiavelli- Constant readiness to go to war-Therefore a situation of
anarchy- Solution to maximise national interest by maximising national
power by acquiring military power.
• Modern realists agree to this- stress on necessity of alliance building,
State as key political actor, against entrusting security to IOs
• Offensive realists- States will seek to maximise their power relative to
others- If rival State has more power then it can never be safe- One
solution is hegemony
• Defensive realists- Do not support hegemony but state that States
must maintain balance of power- Polarity the distribution of power
amongst great powers
• NEO-REALISM/ STUCTURAL REALISM
1. Kenneth Waltz- Theory of International Politics
Unit of study- An international Structure- The States cannot control it- A force in itself
International Structure is based on:
i) Absence of overarching authority
ii) Distribution of Capabilities among States
Core principle of neorealism- Balance of power
Possibility of international cooperation is rare
2. Robert Gilpin- War and Change in World Politics
Distribution of power among states constitutes the principal form of control in every
international system
History as a cycle- Birth, expansion and demise of dominant powers
Hegemon challenged by new powers e.g. through economic strength or technology etc.
REALISMS- commonality- Unitary autonomous state in an international anarchic system
 LIBERALISM
• A historical alternative to realism
• Human nature is good and innate goodness makes societal progress
possible.
• War is a product of inadequate or corrupt social institutions and
misunderstanding among leaders
• War/aggressive behaviour can be moderated through institutional
reform
• National characteristics of individual States matter for their i.r. –
unlike realism where all states have same goals
• Origins in Locke’s ideas, Enlightenment Optimism, 19th century
political and economic liberalism and 20th century Wilsonian idealism
• Bentham’s utilitarianism- ‘greatest happiness of the greatest number
or by maximising utility- the project of constructing international law
should sacrifice the ideal of national self-interest to the universal ideal
of ‘the greatest happiness of all nations taken together’.
• Immanuel Kant- there is or should be a universal community of
mankind (either moral or political)/Cosmopolitanism and Federation
of Republican States
Michael Doyle- Democratic peace- Absence of war between liberal States/mature liberal
democracies- they resort to war only for good liberal reasons- They grant their citizens freedoms
and while resorting to war ask their citizens- This thesis has influenced Bill Clinton in policy making
Andrew Moravcsik- developed a general liberal theory- three assumptions in liberal theory:-
1. Individuals and private groups/ Non-State actors- States are not the fundamental actor in
world politics
2. States serve the interests of dominant subset of domestic society
3. Configuration of these preferences determine State behaviour
Survival may be an important goal but ideological beliefs and commercial interests may also be
important
Relies on:
4. Impact of interdependence
5. Benefits of free trade
6. Collective security
7. Existence of real harmony of interests between states
This theory is important in designing international institutions like courts which have impact on
domestic politics or to link domestic institutions.
 NEO- LIBERALISM
• Offers a political science of international interdependence
• Relation between State and non-state actors
• Deals with:-
1. Low politics- Economic and social issues
2. High politics- security issues
No hierarchy amongst low and high politics
They accept some core ideas of realism- there is an international anarchy,
sovereign State as most important actor, accept the empirical account of IR-
Not exclusively liberal or realist ideas can be adopted
 CONSTRUCTIVISM
• More than a theory it is an ontology- Anne Marie Slaughter – Not a uniform theory
• Counterpart is not realism/liberalism/institutionalism but rationalism
• Challenges rationalist framework the undergirds many theories of IR Constructivists create alternatives in
each of these families of theories
• Questions the nature of state and the concepts of sovereignty and citizenship
• Also called ideational- pertaining to the formation of ideas or thoughts of objects not immediately present
to the senses
• Rather than rationality of a State they may focus on ideas like identity and belief/ social context-
“Individuals in collectivities forge, shape, and change culture through ideas and practices. States and
national interests are the result of the social identities of these actors”.
• Due to their interest in belief and ideology- they stress on the role of non-State actors than any other
theorists- TNCs and NGOs can influence State behaviour through rhetoric or forms of lobbying, persuasion
and shaming
• International bureaucracies may seek to pursue their own interests even against the wishes of the States
that created them.
• Alexander Wendt- Constructivist theorists- political structure whether
of anarchy or material capabilities explains nothing.
• Constructivists also see power not in material terms like military,
economic and political but in discursive terms like power of ideas,
culture and language
 CRITICAL THEORIES
• Marxists
Emphasis on dynamics of global class relations
Understand interests and behaviour of global capital to make sense of State
behaviour
Primacy to economics to explain all other phenomenon
Dependency theorists- contemporary radicals- primary importance to multinational
corporations and international banks in the developed countries
• Feminists
Gender as a variable of interest
Led to study on effects of war on family life
• Post-Colonial