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Telecommunication Networks I (ETEN503)

The document provides an overview of telecommunication networks, distinguishing between circuit-switched and packet-switched networks. It discusses the evolution of communication systems, the structure of telecommunication networks, and the role of exchanges and trunk groups in facilitating calls. Additionally, it highlights the convergence of voice and data communication and the impact of competition in the telecom industry.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
20 views136 pages

Telecommunication Networks I (ETEN503)

The document provides an overview of telecommunication networks, distinguishing between circuit-switched and packet-switched networks. It discusses the evolution of communication systems, the structure of telecommunication networks, and the role of exchanges and trunk groups in facilitating calls. Additionally, it highlights the convergence of voice and data communication and the impact of competition in the telecom industry.

Uploaded by

israeleneji111
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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TELECOMMUNICATIO

NS NETWORKS I
(ETEN503)

1
Lecturer: Prof E.N. Onwuka
2
Introduction
 There are two types of communication
networks: circuit-switched networks and
packet-switched networks
 In circuit-switched networks a dedicated physical
(digital or analog) circuit between the calling
and called party is set up at the start of a call
and released when the call has ended.
 Traditional telephone networks are circuit-
switched networks and collectively form the
switched-circuit network (SCN).
 Today these networks are used for speech and
3
Introduction
 Initially, all communication networks were
circuit-switched networks.
 Data networks, consisting of a number of nodes
connected by digital links, made their
appearance around 1970.
 In these networks, a call (or session) consists
of a series of short data bursts (packets)
followed by relatively long silent intervals.
 A physical circuit therefore does not have to be
dedicated to a single data call but can be shared
4 Introduction
 The terms “telecommunication network”
and “data network” usually imply circuit-
mode and packet-mode, respectively.
 However, advances in packet technology
are making possible voice communication
in data networks, in what is called
convergence of voice and data.
 The long-term trend is toward packet
communication for voice, video, and data.
5 Introduction
 Fig 1.1 shows a small part
of a telecommunication
network. It consists of
exchanges, trunks, and
subscriber lines .
 Trunks are circuits between
exchanges, and the group of
trunks between a pair of
exchanges is known as a trunk
group (TG).
 Subscriber lines (SLs) are
circuits between a
subscriber S and the local Fig 1.1 Partial view of a
telecommunication
exchange (A, B, C). network
 Exchanges D and E do not
6 Introduction
 Calls:  The circuit in case (b) consists of
SLp, a temporary path across
 A call requires a communication
exchange A, trunk T1, a temporary
circuit (connection) between two path across exchange B, and SLr.
subscribers.
 The connections of Fig. 1.2 are
 Fig 1.2 shows a number of
set up (switched “on”) at the
connections in the network of Fig. start of a call and released
1.1 that involve subscriber Sp. (switched “off”) when the call
 In Fig. 1.2(a), Sp is on a call with ends.
Sq who is attached to the same
exchange.
 Calls of this type are known as
intraexchange calls.
 The circuit for the call consists
Fig 1.2 Connections
of the subscriber lines SLp and
involving subscriber Sp
SLq and a temporary path in
7
Introduction
 Setup and Release.:  Subscriber Sp sends a request-
for-service signal to exchange A
 The setup and release of (by lifting the
connections in handset of a telephone) and
telecommunication networks  then signals the digits of the
are triggered by signals. telephone number of Sr (with the
dial or keyset of the telephone).
 Starting and ending a call
involve signaling
between the subscribers and
their local exchanges and,
 for interexchange calls,
signaling between the
exchanges along the
connection. Fig 1.3 Setup of a
connection
8 Introduction
 From the received number,  When exchange B receives
exchange A determines that the seizure signal and the
Sr is served by exchange B, called number, it checks
and that the call is to be whether Sr is idle.
routed out on a trunk in  If it is idle, it sends a
group TG1 (Fig. 1.1). ringing signal on SLr, and a
 It then searches for an ringing-tone signal on T1,
idle trunk in this group to inform Sp.
and finds trunk T1.  When Sr lifts the handset
 Exchange A now seizes the of the telephone, an
trunk and sends a seizure answer signal is sent to
signal, followed by signals exchange B, which then
that represent digits of the stops the ringing signal
9
Introduction
 The connection is now  One-Way and Both-way Trunk
complete and allows Groups.
speech or other  In Fig. 1.1, there is at most one trunk
communications between group between two exchanges. Let us
the subscribers. consider the group TG1.
 At the end of the call,  The network should allow calls
originating at A with destination B
another signaling
and calls originating at B with
sequence takes place to destination A. Therefore, both
release the connection. exchanges are allowed to seize trunks
in TG1.
 A trunk group whose trunks can be
seized by the exchanges at both ends is
known as a bothway trunk group
10
Introduction
 A pair of exchanges can  Two-way groups have an economic
also be interconnected by advantage because, for a given traffic
two one-way trunk groups. intensity, the number of trunks of a
bothway trunk group can be smaller than
 The trunks in one-way the total number of trunks in the one-way
groups can be seized by groups.
one exchange only.  In bothway groups, it can happen that
 For example, exchanges A the exchanges at both ends of a trunk
and B could be group seize the same trunk at the same
interconnected by two one- time (double seizure).
way trunk groups TG1A and  There are several alternatives to deal
TG1B, whose trunks can be with a double seizure. For example, it
seized by A and B, can be arranged that one exchange
respectively. continues the setup, and the other
exchange backs off (tries to. seize
 Both arrangements are another trunk for its call).
used in actual networks.
Networks Fig 1.4
11
Networks
 The telecommunication network is an
aggregation of interconnected
networks of several types.
 Networks can be classified as shown
in Fig. 1.4. In the first place, the
(global) telecommunication network
consists of national networks and the
international network.
 In turn, a national network is a
combination of public and private
networks.
 Public networks are for
general use; private networks
can be used only by
employees of the
12 Networks

 A public network consists of a
“fixed” network and a number of
“cellular mobile” networks.
 In the United States, the fixed
public network, known as the
public switched
telecommunication network
(PSTN), consists of about 150
LATA (local access and transport
area) networks interconnected
by networks that are known as
IC (interexchange carrier), or
long-distance, networks.
Fig 1.5 Interconnection of LATA and IC
 LATA and IC networks
networks
are interconnected by
13 Networks
 Some local exchanges (A) have a
direct trunk group to an exchange
of an IC, other exchanges (B, C, D,
E) have access to the IC network
via an intermediate (tandem)
exchange in their respective
LATAs.
 A cellular network has one or
more mobile switching centers
(MSCs) as shown in Fig. 1.6.
 Each MSC is connected by an
internetwork trunk group to a
Fig 1.6 Interconnection of fixed and
nearby tandem exchange T of a mobile networks
fixed (LATA) network.
14
Networks
 Private Branch Exchange
(PBXs)
 These are exchanges owned by
government agencies,
businesses, and so on and
located in buildings that
belong to these organizations.
 A PBX enables the employees
in a building to call each other Fig 1.7 Interconnection of private
and to make and receive calls network and a LATA network.
ALG, access line group; TG, trunk
from subscribers served by the group (public); TTG, tie trunk group
public network. (private); PBX, private branch
exchange
 A PBX is connected by an
15
Networks
 An organization with PBXs in several  International Calls.
cities can establish a private network
that consists of the PBXs and a
 Fig 1.8 shows the
number of tie trunk groups (TTG) interconnection of long-
between the public local exchanges to distance (IC) networks in
which their PBXs are attached. different countries.
 A TTG is a “private” group that is  For a call from country A to
leased by the LATA operator and is
dedicated to private-network calls.
country C, an IC network in
country A routes the connection
 In Fig. 1.7, the connection for a call to an international switching
between public branch exchanges X center (ISC).
and Y uses a trunk of TTG1 and is
switched in the public local exchanges  An ISC has national trunk
A and B. groups to exchanges of its IC
 There are also virtual private networks and international trunk
(VPNs). They appear to a business as a groups to ISCs in foreign
private network but use the trunks of
16
Networks

Fig 1.8 Interconnections between


national IC networks and the
international network
17 Telecoms (companies)
 Let us use the term telecom to  The networks in the
denote a company that owns United States, for
and operates a public
example, are operated
telecommunication network.
by investor-owned
 Until recently, the telecoms in
telecoms.
most countries were
government-owned monopolies  Until 1984, the Bell
that operated an entire System was the largest
national network. telecom, operating
practically the entire long-
 In recent years, a number
distance network and
of countries have started many local networks.
to privatize their telecoms
 Independent (non-Bell)
and to allow competition
18
Telecoms (companies)
 The division of the U.S. public  Competition for local service was
network into local access and allowed but was slow in
developing because of high entry
transport areas (LATAs) and barriers.
interexchange carrier (IXC or  The latest development is that
IC) networks took place in IXCs and LECs are allowed to
1984, provide both local and long-
due to government actions distance service.
that broke up the Bell System.  In addition, new wireline, cable,
 As a result, competing IXCs and wireless companies can
started offering long-distance provide competing telephone
service. All that has resulted in
and international service,
mergers between LECs, IXCs,
while local exchange carriers cable companies, and wireless
(LECs) provided service on a companies.
regional basis, in LATAs.
Some Common Similar Terms
19

 Since telecommunication terms 1. Subscriber, customer, user


originated rather independently 2. Subscriber line, line, loop
in different countries, 3. Local exchange, local office, central
office, end office
 technical literature in English
4. Intermediate exchange, tandem
still uses different terms for the exchange, toll exchange, transit
same concepts, depending on exchange
whether the authors are from 5. International switching center,
the United States, from the gateway, international exchange
United Kingdom, or from other 6. Trunk, junction, circuit
English-speaking countries, or 7. Telecom, administration, carrier,
operating company, telephone
documents are translations company, telco, service provider
from other languages. 8. Exchange, switch
 Some frequently used synonyms 9. Switchblock, switch fabric
are listed below:
The Need for Exchange/Central
20
Switch
 For a simple two-person
telephone talk, the two
telephones need to be
connected by a single pair
of wires and a battery, see
Fig 1.9(a).

telephone setup
Fig 1.9 simple
(a
 Let’s extend this basic )
two-person scenario to
the more general case of
several people with
phones wishing to be able
to talk to each other.
 For example, a four-
telephone scenario is (b
)
The Need for Exchange/Central
21
Switch
 Not only does each telephone  As the number of phones becomes
need to terminate three links large, the number of directly
connected links approaches n2/2.
rather than just one, but it also
 So, for a 100 telephones, 5000
needs a 1-to-3 selection
direct lines will be needed, and
mechanism to choose which of selection mechanism on each
the links should be connected phone will be more complicated,
to converse with the required making the design uneconomical.
telephone.
 This requires a selection switch in
each phone and an ID for all
connected phones.
 This arrangement may work for
a network of few phones – like Fig 1.6
the intercom in a home or Fig 1.10 Direct interconnection of
several phones
The Need for Exchange/Central
Switch
22
 To solve this problem, a central
hub (commonly called an
exchange or central office) was
introduced.
 Each phone is linked to it directly,
and provides connectivity
between any two phone lines, on
demand (Fig 1.11). With a single
exchange serving n phones only n
links are required
 The exchange manages both
power and connectivity for the
phones, which is both more
economical and convenient. Fig 1.11 Provision of
The Need for Exchange/Central
23
Switch
 He then monitors the
 Today, exchanges are automated, in indicator lamps of the calling
the earlier days, the method of lines to know when any of
connecting two telephone lines them hangs up.
together was through a human  The operator also needed to
operator using jumper wires across write down the numbers of the
a patching panel. calling parties and the time of
the call to enable billing.
 At that time, each telephone line is
 Though today’s exchanges are
terminated on the panel in a socket
with an associated small indicator fully automated, there are still
occasions when human
lamp.
intervention is needed, e.g.
 The human operator was notified  In emergency situations,
that telephone A wished to make and in rendering certain
call by the glowing of the relevant assistance to subscribers.
lamp, activated by telephone A Call centers are used for
going ‘off-hook’. these.
Optimal Number of Exchanges
24

 In a small village, all the lines could  The location of the exchanges
easily be connected to a single in an area is important in
telephone exchange, since the distances getting the optimal cost.
are short.  They should be located where
 In a larger area, the question of how the sum of all the subscriber
many exchanges are needed arises. In line length will be shortest –
known as the center of gravity.
Fig 1.12 a large number of phones
needed to be connected.  The longer the line length, the
 Should it be one exchange or many? What more the resistance. To be
number of exchange is optimal? feasible the resistance of a
subscriber line must be below
 One exchange will give rise to many
2 kΩ. To meet this, longer line
lengthy subscriber lines, which will length must be of larger
increase cost. More exchanges will diameter, but more expensive.
shorten the subscriber line but will
bring the cost of building the exchanges  In very lengthy lines,
and junction routes to interconnect inductors are used to reduce
them. line losses.
25

Fig 1.12 Network


optimisation
Optimal Number of Exchanges
26
 To connect several regions or a an entire  Further network
country with telephone lines, further optimization is possible
network optimization is needed.
by the addition of a
 For example, for an area comprising 26
single trunk tandem
exchanges the number of fully
interconnected junction routes would be
exchange to provide
26(26 - 1)/2 = 325, as shown in Figure connectivity between
1.13(a). each of the trunk
 For a country with 6,000 local exchanges exchanges.
the number of directly connected junction  This will reduce the
routes would be an impossible 17,997,000!
number of trunk links to
 To solve this problem, a central exchange six, but with the added
within each region, known as a trunk cost of a trunk tandem
exchange is used. exchange as in Fig 1.13(c).
 These trunk exchanges also need to have  The arrangement of
‘trunk routes’ between them to ensure full
connectivity across all regions. exchanges and links can
27

Fig 1.13 (a) Network


structure 1. (b) Network
structure 2. (c)
Network structure 3.
(d) Network structure 4
Numbering and addressing in telephone networks
28
 At the second level of the hierarchy are  Numbering and addressing
the trunk exchanges, and at the top of in telephone networks:
the hierarchy is the trunk tandem
 Traditionally, telephone
exchange.
numbers are used by the
 Fig 1.14 shows a simplified exchange control system to not
representation of British Telecom (BT), only route the call through the
there are three ways of connecting network, but also to determine
subscriber’s lines to the network: the charge category for the call.
 Type (i), where subscribers are connected  Subscribers can identify from
directly to the central local exchange the initial
(known as a ‘processor node’) digits in the number those calls
 Type (ii), where subscribers are connected which will incur long-distance,
to a remote unit (known as a ‘remote international, or special tariff
concentrator’), which in turn is parented rates
onto and controlled by the central local
exchange.
 Type (iii), where subscribers are connected
29

Fig 1.14 British Telecom


Numbering and addressing in
30
telephone networks
 In fixed telephone networks the number  Within a country, the national
of each subscriber line is location significant number can either
dependent. But this is not so with mobile be organized based on
line numbers geographic areas, for
 The internationally agreed basic format subscribers in a public
for all telephone numbers is described in switched telephone network
recommendation E164, issued by the ITU (PSTN), or on a non-
 Each subscriber in the world has a geographic basis, for mobile
subscribers.
unique international number with a
maximum length of 15 digits, made up of  Fig 1.15 shows how the
a country code of 1, 2, or 3 digits to geographical national number
identify the country, followed by the for a PSTN subscriber’s line is
national number. made up of two parts:
 The length of the national number,  the ‘area code’, which
and hence the size of the population identifies the
geographic region of the
of subscribers that can be identified,
country, and the ‘local
is limited by the length of the country
Numbering and addressing in
31
telephone networks
 Examples of two UK local numbers
are shown: London and Ipswich. The
area code for London is 20, which is
followed by a four-digit Exchange
Code beginning with either 8, 7 or 3,
and a four-digit Subscriber Number
on that exchange.
 For Ipswich, the Area Code is 1473,
followed by a two-digit exchange code
(capable of identifying up to 100 local
exchange units in that area) and a
four-digit subscriber number.
 Thus, in the United Kingdom up to
10,000 lines can be identified on each Fig 1.15 Standard format for
exchange unit. geographical numbers (E164)
Numbering and addressing in telephone networks
32

 In the United Kingdom there is a clear  However, in the United States


separation between numbers allocated and Canada there is no use of
to the PSTN, which have geographical a distinguishing S-digit, so
significance, and mobile networks and subscribers are unable to
special tariff numbers, which have no identify whether a number is
geographical significance. for a mobile or fixed-line
 The first digit of the national number phone.
(excluding the leading 0), known as  The 0 usually written in front
the ‘Service’ or ‘S’ digit, denotes the of UK national numbers is
type of service involved only a prefix used in national-
dialling procedures, and is not
 This gives users an indication of the part of the number.
category of the call, whether it is to a  Thus, the 0 is added by a
fixed-line number, a mobile number, or a
subscriber when dialling a
special tariff number.
national call, which is defined
 All PSTN lines have numbers with an as a call between subscribers
S-digit of 1 or 2. While all mobile having different area codes.
Numbering and addressing in telephone networks
33

 The dialling procedure for a local


call in the United Kingdom, that is,
calls between numbers having the
same area code – is to dial just the
local number.
 International calls are made by
prefixing the full international
number of the foreign subscriber by
the international prefix as used by
the originating network
 The ITU recommendation for this,
which is now adopted by many
countries, including the United
Kingdom, is 00.
 Figure 1.16 illustrates the various
dialing procedures for (a)
international, (b) national and (c)
local calls. Fig 1.16 dialing proceedur for
geographic numbers
How a network sets up a call connection
34

 A fundamental requirement of routing  On receiving the dialed digits


through any telecommunications from the caller, the control
network, whether it is voice call or data, system of the local exchange in
etc., is that each terminal on the network Penzance (the ‘originating
has an address, which can be used to exchange’) examines the first
five digits.
indicate its destination
 The initial ‘0’ indicates to the
 Fig 1.17 illustrates the routing of a
national call within the UK from a control system that a national
subscriber in Penzance in the South West number has been dialed.
tip to a subscriber in Brighton on the  Since the control system
South coast. does not recognize 1273 as
 As an example, let’s assume that the either its own code or that of
any other exchanges to
subscriber in Penzance, 01736 89YYYY
which it has direct routes,
(i.e. Area Code 01736, exchange code 89
the call is switched through
and subscriber number YYYY), dials their to its parent trunk exchange
friend in Brighton, 01273 34XXXX (i.e. in Plymouth.
Area Code 01736, exchange code 34 and
35

Fig 1.16 dialing proceedur for


geographic numbers
How a network sets up a call
36
connection
 The control system in Plymouth  It then routes the call to the
exchange examines digits 01273 Brighton-34 exchange. At the
and concludes that this is not destination exchange, the control
one of its dependent Area Codes, system on recognizing 0123 34
then examines the final XXXX to
but is owned by Haywards Heath
determine called subscriber
trunk exchange. number.
 In the UK network all BT trunk  In the case of a local call from the
exchanges are fully other Brighton exchange, 39, the
interconnected and so the control set-up sequence is simpler
system of Plymouth exchange  The calling subscriber dials only
selects a direct route to Haywards
the local number since the
Heath and signals the full
destination number has the same
destination number.
Area Code.
 Haywards Heath exchange
control system recognizes 01273
as one of its dependent Area
How a network sets up a call
37
connection
 The control system of Brighton-  In both examples above,
39 on examining the first two it is the parent trunk
digits, 34, recognizes that the exchange that
call is destined for one of the determines the charge
other exchanges dependent on rate for the call and
the Hayward’s Heath trunk indicates this to the
exchange, and so routes the call originating local
accordingly exchange, which then
 Hayward’s Heath trunk exchange times the call and
records the incurred
then uses the standard decoding
charge in its control
procedure to determine that the
system memory.
call is destined for Brighton-34
exchange; the call is then  This is later downloaded
completed. to produce an entry on
The many networks and how
38
they link
 Besides the PSTN, there are many
networks in each country all linking
appropriately to provide a variety of
types of voice and data connections
between subscribers across the World.
 Another type of network is the cellular
mobile network, see Fig 1.17. The
principle of operation is like that of the
PSTN
 The mobiles are assigned wireless
channels, on demand by the base station Fig 1.17 Mobile cellular
controller (BSC), to connect to the network concept
network.
 A BSC serves a catchment area of
several cells with their associated BSs
(eNodeB in 4G and gNodeB in 5G). The
The many networks and how
39
they link
 The mobile switching center (MSC), 
Cable TV networks
which is similar to a large local
PSTN exchange (but without the  Cable TV networks are primarily based
subscriber terminations), performs around a cable-distribution system,
the switching of the mobile calls often deployed in only certain areas of
between all handsets operating a town, which delivers many TV
within its catchment area of BSs or broadcast channels primarily to the
to other MSCs on its network. residential market.
 The MSC is also associated with  In some countries like the UK, these
control systems providing terminal- networks also provide telephone
location management and service to the premises. The structure
authentication. of this type of network is shown in Fig
 In 4G, serving gateway (SGW) and 1.18
packet data network gateway (PGW)  Two separate feeds serve each
does the job of MSC, while 5G Core customer’s premises:
(5GC) does it in 5G networks
 A coaxial cable terminating on a set-top
box
40

Fig 1.18 Cable TV


network
The many networks and how
41
they link
 The coaxial cable is part of a tree  At this network center the
and branch arrangement radiating telephone channels are
connected to the cable
from a street cabinet, serving company’s telephone
customers located along one or a exchange
few streets in the vicinity.  The telephone portion of
 A separate pair of telephone wires the cable TV network is
is required for each household similar to the standard
PSTN. However, the
served. catchment areas of the
 At the street cabinet, the TV exchanges are usually
distribution and the telephone much larger than those of
the PSTN.
lines are multiplexed onto an
 In addition, the cable
optical fiber cable back to the
companies tend to combine
network center. the functions of local and
Interconnection of Networks
42

 We have earlier seen how


international calls are routed
through ISCs.
 Traffic between ISCs in
different countries is directly
routed where there is a high
volume of calls between the
two countries, otherwise it is
routed via one or more transit
ISCs located in intermediate
countries. Fig 1.19 International
 Fig 1.19 shows an example in call routing

which Country 1 provides


international transit switching
Interconnection of Networks
43

 In addition to determining the  In the case of a trans-


appropriate route to the border land cable,
destination country, direct or to a ownership extends
transit ISC, the originating from the ISC to the
gateway ISC determines the border.
appropriate rate to be charged for  Where there is a sea
the call. boundary, e.g. between
 This charging information is the US and the UK, a
passed back to the originating hypothetical boundary
local exchange to be associated exists midway along
with the calling subscriber’s the subsea cable, thus
billing records. both operators own a
 The cost of building and so-called ‘half circuit’.
maintaining the transmission links  Each operator pays the
Interconnection of Networks
44
 Any call originating from a BT’s
 Interconnection of a PSTN network to any of the PNO
and a PNO’s network network is routed through the
appropriate POI, and vice versa.
 Fig 1.20 shows the situation in the
UK where BT’s PSTN interconnects  The flow of calls is measured
with several hundred other network between the BT trunk
operators, for example, other PSTN, exchanges and each of the
cable TV network or mobile network interconnected PNO exchanges
in the same country. so that interconnect
conveyance charges can be
 These are generically referred to
determined.
as public network operators
(PNOs). They are connected to BT,  Each network operator must pay
usually at the trunk exchange the receiving operator for the
level, by points of interconnection conveyance and completion of
(POI) calls passed over the POI
 Note that the PNO exchanges in the  The rate of charge for traversing a
network depends on the type of
45

Fig 1.20 Interconnection with a


PNO’s network
Interconnection of Networks
46

 Mobile-to-mobile call via the  Fig 1.21 illustrates the


general situation for calls
PSTN between two different mobile
networks in the same country.
 Note that there are two basic
scenarios for needing such a
configuration.
 The first is a call between a
terminal registered with
mobile network A and a
terminal registered with
mobile network B.
 The other is a call between
two terminals registered with
mobile network A, but the
Fig 1.21 Mobile-to-mobile call second terminal has moved
via PSTN temporarily onto (i.e. visiting)
Interconnection of Networks
47
 Consider the case where a
 Although calls between mobile
terminal, a1, has roamed from
networks in the same country may network A to network B and a
be delivered over direct links call is to be made to it from
between MSCs on their respective another terminal, a2, on
networks, network A
 generally it is more economical to  MSC B has already advised
route calls to other mobile operators, the MSC A that terminal a1
as well as the wide range of fixed is currently on its network,
PNOs, via the national incumbent’s so network A knows that it
PSTN, with its widespread coverage needs to pass the call from
and full interconnectivity with all the terminal a2 over to network
operators in the country. B
 Each mobile network has at least  On receiving a call completion
one MSC that acts as a gateway to request from network A, MSC
the PSTN, providing the required B allocates on a temporary
basis, one of a small pool of
Interconnection of Networks
48

 The originating MSC then routes  The Internet


the call via its nominated gateway  The Internet is really a super
MSC to the PSTN, using the constellation of many networks
allocated PSTN number as the around the world – a network
destination address. of networks.
 Each of these networks is
 The MSC of network B can then
based on a
associate the incoming call from the special form of switching
PSTN with the required BS currently designed specifically for
serving terminal a1. The call handling data, using Internet
connection between a2 and a1 can then protocol (IP).
be completed.  However, it was the
 Interconnect charging applies introduction of the World Wide
Web (WWW), that really
across the boundary of network A caused the Internet to spread
to the PSTN, and across the throughout the world and to
boundary between the PSTN and become the phenomenon that
49

Fig 1.22 The Internet


concept
The Internet
50

 Each of the component networks in the  Full interconnectivity across


Internet constellation are owned and the country is provided by
operated by Internet service providers cabling links between the
(ISPs), shown shaded. Transit ISP’s routers
 Users and providers of information (in the collocated in Internet
exchange points (IXPs).
form of web pages) subscribe to an ISP
for their Internet service.  The Transit ISPs also have
connections to Backbone ISPs
 ISPs networks usually comprise of several
with their international
IP switching units – known as ‘routers’
coverage, who in turn have
located at various points in the country and
direct links to other Backbone
linked by high-capacity transmission
ISPs, so spreading the
circuits leased from a network operator
Internet worldwide.
 There is also a hierarchy of ISPs, with  The largest IXP in the UK is
Local ISPs providing a gateway to the in the
Internet for its set of subscribers. City of London – called
 Local ISPs are parented on one or more ‘Telehouse’.
The Internet

51
 Access to the Internet
 The Fig also shows how a user gains
access to a website, with a web server  Dial-up via the PSTN and
shown linked to Local ISP #2. It also ISDN
shows a domain name server (DNS)
connected to that ISP; this device acts as  The original way of
a directory listing Internet addresses for accessing the Internet is
web names through a telephone call,
 Users access their ISPs over links provided thus taking advantage of
by one of a range of fixed networks (PSTN,
integrated services digital network (ISDN),
the full interconnectivity
leased line, xDSL (digital subscriber line; of the PSTN, its ubiquity
DSL) broadband and Cable TV), and mobile and its ease of use.
networks
 The procedure is in two
 For wireless connection users may link
stages: the first is a
their terminals – laptops, tablets, etc. telephony call to the ISP;
over Wi-Fi, to the fixed broadband links to the second stage is a data
the ISPs. transfer session between
Access to the Internet

52

 For the first stage, a standard call  A modem card in the


is set up from the computer, which computer makes it behave
like a telephone instrument
is connected to a telephone line in
 The modem also enables data
the normal way.
to be passed over the
standard local telephone line.
 The ISP is connected to the
PSTN over a standard local
line or by an ISDN local line,
but in either case standard
telephone numbers are
allocated.
 The call connection through
the PSTN acts as a two-way
path between the computer
Fig 1.23 Dial-up access to and the ISP
the Internet
Access to the Internet

53
 One solution is for the ISP
 The ISP then routes the data
to take a special service
between the computer and the from the PSTN operator
Internet for the duration of the using special numbers,
session. which enables the users to
have free or reduced rate
 When the user indicates that the
call charges, and the ISP to
session is over, the modem card in the be able to recover the
computer creates the equivalent of the charges through
‘on-hook’ condition so that the subscriptions from the
telephone exchange clears the call to registered users.
the ISP in the normal way
 Alternatively the national
 Generally, the exchange handles regulator can make special
the call to the ISP as standard flat rate tariffs available as a
telephony, in terms of charging wholesale interconnect
and routing. service to other operators
(PNOs) or ISPs
 However, the users want to be able
Access to the Internet

54

 The most effective way of avoiding  Over xDSL broadband


this problem is the total links
segregation of telephony and  There are a family of
Internet traffic transmission systems being
 Such segregation is provided by the deployed to provide fixed
xDSL (so-called ‘broadband’) and cable broadband access using the
modem access systems, which provide existing copper pair telephone
users with a high-speed Internet wires, a technique known as
access by routing their data traffic to DSL
the ISP independently of the PSTN  Fig 1.24 shows the main two
 Accessing the Internet via ISDN is members of the ‘xDSL’
family: asymmetric DSL
essentially the same as for the PSTN, (ADSL) and very high-speed
except that the interface of the ISDN DSL (VDSL).
line to the computer is digital,
 Both ADSL and VDSL enable a
consequently higher speeds up to 64
high-speed data service to be
55

Fig 1.24 Access to the Internet via ADSL


and VDSL
Access to the Internet

56
 The telephony is carried over
 At the subscriber premises, the
a copper pair to the input of
internal telephone line and the the local exchange switch.
computer are separately connected  The data stream carrying
to a ‘splitter’ within the ADSL the Internet-bound traffic
termination equipment. is connected to the DSLAM
 This device directs the computer (digital subscriber line
access module) equipment,
output to the high-speed data which combines the data
channel on the line, while enabling from many such lines onto
the telephone signal to be carried a high-speed transmission
in the normal way on the local line. link to a data network.
 The ADSL splitter and terminating  This network carries the
equipment located at the exchange Internet-bound data to the
connecting points of the
similarly separates the telephony
various ISPs in the country. A
and high-speed data signal similar process applies in the
Access to the Internet

57

 The VDSL is an enhancement  Over a cable modem


of this DSL concept in which  Cable TV networks provide a high-
higher
data speeds are achieved by speed data link to an ISP over one
keeping the copper pair short, of the spare TV channels carried
by terminating it on a splitter through the network.
and DSLAM in a nearby street
 The technique requires a device
cabinet.
called ‘cable
 The high-speed data channels
modem’, which converts the output
is carried over an optical fiber
to the data network, while the
of the computer into a signal
telephony-only signal is compatible with the TV distribution
carried over the remaining system.
copper line back to the  In Fig 1.25, the computer is
telephone exchange.
connected to splitter-like device
which segregates the received TV
58

Fig 1.25 Access to the Internet via


cable modem
Access to the Internet

59

 Since many subscribers are sharing the  Over optical fiber


data modem channel on the coaxial cable
tree, some form of combining of the many  There are several
signals is required; broadband access
 the street cabinet therefore performs a systems that use optical
similar multiplexing function as the fiber technology all the
DSLAM, described above. way from subscriber’s
 As described for xDSL access, the Cable premises to the serving
TV operator routes the multiplexed data exchange building (fiber-
traffic over a data network to the
connecting points of the appropriate
to-the home),
ISPs.  thereby ensuring higher
 The telephony is carried over a copper data speeds and usually
pair alongside the coaxial cable back a lower maintenance
to the street cabinet, liability than systems
 where the voice channel is combined using copper cables.
Access to the Internet

60
 Over mobile network
 Over leased line access
 Of course, a popular way
 Leased lines are primarily designed
to access the Internet
to provide a dedicated end-to-end following the advent of
communications channel (narrow
smartphones and tablets
band or broadband) between two
is via a mobile network
subscribers’ premises to carry either
voice or data traffic privately. connection.
 However, leased lines may also be  The access from the
used to provide Internet access over phone or tablet may be
high-capacity dedicated links from via the mobile network or
large business premises (e.g. office via a local Wi-Fi
block, university campus) to their connection to the fixed
ISP. broadband service using
one of the configurations
The Special Networks Associated With a PSTN

61

 Network operators, particularly the  Operator-services


national incumbents, need to provide a network
range of services beyond the standard
telephony of the PSTN.
 This network comprises
 These extra services, which are grouped as of several specialized
those available to all customers and those telephone exchanges
aimed at business customers, are provided around the country, but
by specialized networks owned and run by
the operator and closely linked to their which support a suite of
PSTN operator consoles
 Most of the private network operators in (typically 10–30),
a country also have one or more of these instead of subscriber
specialized networks, usually aimed at the
business customers
lines.
 The transmission between the customer’s  The operators have
premises and the exchange building uses more control of the
either the copper Access Network used by
calls than is provided to
The Special Networks Associated With a PSTN

62

 The operator-services network  The intelligent


provides call assistance (dial 100) network
and access to the emergency
 The intelligent network (IN)
services (dial 999 in UK, the comprises of several centers
European standard 112, US around the country containing
standard 911, etc.), directory control systems and databases
enquiry, and blind and disabled that provide a variety of
special assistance services. advanced switched services.
 Typically, these services are
 Calls to this network are routed based on the translation of the
either directly from the PSTN number dialed by the subscriber
originating exchange or from the to another number to complete
the call, together with some
parent trunk exchange. special charging arrangements
 There are also special charging (e.g. the recipient rather than
the caller pays)
arrangements for such services;
The Special Networks Associated With a PSTN
63

 Business-services network  Leased-lines services


 There are a range of telephony network
services designed for businesses  The leased-lines-service
which give direct desk-to-desk dialing network provides point-to-
using private numbering schemes and point un-switched links, known
as ‘leased lines or private
special charging arrangements
circuits’, between business
between offices and factory sites, etc. premises
– examples are Centrex and VPN
 Although the leased-line
 These services can be provided by service provided to the
the local PSTN exchange. However, business customers is non-
it is usually more economical to use switched, the network may use
separate dedicated special automatic digital
exchanges for these services, which crossconnection units (DXC),
form a business-services network.  It is a form of switching
equipment for leased-lines
The Special Networks Associated With a PSTN
64
 Longer leased-line circuits
 Connections once set up are held
are obtained by jumpering
for the duration of the lease of the of transmission links in
circuit, typically several years. concatenation from the
 Such circuits are used for linking customer’s premises at A to
their premises at B
private telephone systems (i.e.
 Fig 1.26(b) gives a block
voice) or alternatively, linking data
terminals and computers (i.e. schematic diagram of
data) in different business leased lines provided
premises. using DXCs to establish
the required path across
 Fig 1.26 illustrates the outline
the network.
arrangement for the leased-line
 The connection across
services network.
the DXCs is controlled
 Fig 1.26(a) shows how a leased-
and monitored from a
line circuit provided simply by
65

Fig 1.26 A leased-line services network.


(a) Manually-jumpered leased-line circuit.
(b) Leased-line circuit using digital cross-
The Special Networks Associated With a PSTN
66
 Business customers use
 Data services networks the data services
 There are a variety of specialized provided by the network
networks providing a range of operators to
data services using the packet connect terminals and
switching technique, rather than computers from one set
the circuit switching technique of premises to another.
normally used for telephony  In addition, businesses
 The most common of these data now use data networks
services are: ATM (asynchronous within their premises,
transfer mode), Ethernet, Frame such as LANs, the
Relay (FR), IP and MPLS network data service
(multiprotocol label switching) then acts as a link
 Typically, each of these data between distant LANs.
The Special Networks Associated With a PSTN
67

 Telex network  Its exchanges are like telephone


exchanges and the Telex Network
 Telex is a basic text messaging is also structured with a routing
service which was used hierarchy similar to the PSTN.
extensively throughout the  Also, the Telex subscriber lines
World by businesses. are connected to their exchanges
(which were in the same
 It is now very much a legacy
buildings as the PSTN
service, being replaced by fax exchanges) over the local copper
and e-mails. However, it is still Access Network
used within many developing  British Telecom closed its inland
countries and internationally to Telex network in 2008, although
their trading partners. it still retains access to
 The Telex Network is quite international Telex
service.
separate from the PSTN, with
its own numbering scheme for
68

Fig 1.25 A model of the networks


associated with a Telco
A model of the set of a Telco’s networks
Module II
PCM Systems, Plesiochronous digital
hierarchy (PDH), Synchronous
69
digital hierarchy (SDH)
Multiplexed payloads

70

 The costs of a  The PCM multiplexed payload


telecommunications network  The primary multiplexed payload
are minimized by exploiting created by assembling a group of
the significant economies of PCM channels
scale offered by multiplexing. forms the basic building block of
 In general, the cost per all digital transmission and
circuit carried reduces as the switching networks
capacity of the transmission used throughout the world.
system increases; thus, it  There are two standards of the
pays to multiplex as many PCM primary multiplex payload
channels as possible on to created by the ITU
each transmission link. 1. The 30-channel standard, used
 There are different standards in Europe, Asia, and elsewhere
for multiplexing composite regionally and on all
signals for conveyance over international links; and
The PCM Multiplexed Payload - 30-Channel PCM Multiplex

71
 The first of these support
 30-Channel PCM Multiplex channels is carried in timeslot
 In this standard the primary 0, ‘TS0’
multiplexed structure is based on a  it is known as the
timeframe divided into 32 ‘synchronization’ channel,
timeslots, as shown in Fig 2.1 and is used to indicate the
start of the frame
 The timeframe length is 125 μs,
 The second support channel is
arising from the sampling rate of
carried in timeslot 16 (TS16)
8 kHz, which is the minimum
and is used to carry the call-
sampling rate for a speech control signaling between the
waveform with frequency 4 kHz exchanges at either end of the
 Thus, each timeslot in this frame PCM route.
occupies 1/32 of 125 μs, which is,  Timeslots 1–15 are used to
3.9 μs carry speech channels 1–15,
 The 32 timeslots of the frame respectively; timeslots 17–31
are used to carry speech
72
The PCM Multiplexed Payload

Fig 2.1 The 30-channel PCM multiplex


frame structure
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
73

 The A/D conversion process  Another feature of the 30-


within the PCM system encodes channel multiplex is the
each speech sample into an 8-bit line rate provided for each
binary word. speech channel.
 This is given by the number of bits
 Therefore, each of the 32
per sample, 8, times the number
timeslots in the multiplex carries of samples per second, 8,000 –
8 bits, making a total of 256 bits that is a line rate of 64,000 bits/s,
per frame. or 64 kbit/s.
 Fig 2.1 also shows how the 8 bits
 Since there are 8,000 frames
of an individual channel are
transmitted every second, the represented by digital pulses
line rate of the 30-channel PCM every 0.488 μs (i.e. 3.9 μs/8), each
multiplex is 8,000 bits/s × 256 pulse being 0.244 μs or 244 ns
bits, i.e. 2,048,000 bits/s. wide
 At the receiving end of the digital
 This rate is usually designated as
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
74
 Digital telecommunication
 However the start of each frame is
networks have been developed
marked by the frame-start identification
and built on the basis of the 2
which is indicated by a special bit
Mbit/s building blocks – often
pattern, called the ‘frame alignment
referred as ‘2 Mbit/s digital
pattern.
blocks’.
 This is inserted into the TS0 of odd
 These blocks are also the entry
frames at the sending end. At the
level into digital exchanges (local,
receiving end the first 8 bits of two
trunk, and international and
frames worth of bits are examined in
mobile)
a digital register to identify the start
of the frame.  In addition, data can be directly
 When the start of the frame has then inserted into a 2 Mbit/s multiplex
since it is already in digital
been detected, the receiver is now in
format.
‘frame alignment’ with the sender. It
can now identify the 8 bits of each  Thus, the 2 Mbit/s digital block
channel. may be considered as a payload
vehicle capable of carrying 30
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
75

 The 2 Mbit/s block is also used by  24-Channel pulse-code


network operators as the primary modulation multiplex (USA
rate for a digital stream which is DS1)
delivered to customer’s premises for
 Fig 2.2 shows the frame structure
a variety of business services, which
includes for the 24-channel DS1 system.
 digital leased lines, connections to digital  The speech is digitally encoded
ISDN PABXs, as well as ATM, Frame relay and into 8 bits using 8 kHz sampling
SMDS data services
rate, as in the 30-channel system
 These 2 Mbit/s digital blocks,  The difference lies in the way it is
whether carry data or voice, may be done. Different quantization
carried directly over a transmission methods was used to encode the
link or multiplexed together with same waveform into a different set
other blocks to form higher-capacity of 8 bits
payloads for PDH or SDH  Therefore a transcoding is
transmission systems required when 30-ch. PCM is
connected to 24-ch. PCM links.
76
The PCM Multiplexed Payload

Fig 2.2 The 24-channel PCM multiplex


frame structure
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
77
 This rate is also known as the
 All the 24 timeslots within the 125 ‘DS1’ rate in the US and each of
μs timeframe are normally used for the component 64 kbit/s channels
speech channels, there is no are known as ‘DS0’.
equivalence of the TS16 or TS0 of  There are two ways that signaling
the 30-ch. system. can be conveyed over the 24-ch.
 However, a single bit is contained at system.
the front of the frame before TS1  However, the earlier signaling
which is used to carry the frame by bit stealing has been
alignment pattern. discarded, and now the DS1
 The pattern is sent one-bit at a time system has been upgraded to
over odd frames – that is dispersed carry common-channel
signaling at 64 kbit/s in one of
over eight odd frames, rather than
the time slots, leaving 23
bunched into one frame, as in the channels for speech.
30-ch. system.
 The 1.5 Mbit/s digital block is
 The frame comprises of 24 eight-bit
also offered by network operators
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
78
 The time-division multiplexing of
 This 1.5 Mbit/s digital
digital blocks
block is frequently referred
 Larger payloads may be created by
to as a ‘T1’ system in North
time-division multiplexing several 2
America. The term ‘E1’ is
Mbit/s or 1.5 Mbit/s digital blocks.
used, to describe the
 In Fig 2.3 the concept is illustrated using
equivalent 2 Mbit/s digital a rotating
block used in Europe and arm to sample each of four 2 Mbit/s
elsewhere. digital block tributaries, each with
timeslots 0–31.
 These 1.5 Mbit/s digital  The 125 μs timeframes of the
blocks, containing data or tributaries is assumed to be aligned so
voice, may be carried that they all start at the same instant.
directly over a transmission  Since the frame size of the TDM
link or highway is the same as that of the
 multiplexed together with tributaries, the time spent by the
wiper on each tributary can be no
79
The PCM Multiplexed Payload

Fig 2.3 Interleaving of digital


blocks
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
80
 For this TDM system to
 The wiper therefore must sample
operate accurately the two
each tributary at the rate of 8 wipers have to rotate at the
Mbit/s. same speed and their
 The content of the TDM highway is starting points aligned so
therefore four times that of each that corresponding
single tributary, that is, 120 traffic tributaries at the input and
channels in 128 time slots, with output are sampled
each time slot occupying 0.975 μs simultaneously.
(i.e. 3.9 ms divided by 4).  The speed of the distant
 This gives each bit occupying wiper is set by the
0.122 μs, which is a quarter of incoming bit stream,
0.488 μs.  while the alignment is
 At the far end of the TDM highway achieved using a frame
alignment pattern (known
the process is reversed and the as a frame alignment
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
81
 Whilst the more recent
 There are two basic ways of
TDM payload system
sampling the tributaries and of SDH, uses the more
interleaving their contents complex technique of
onto the TDM highway: ‘bit’ byte interleaving
interleaving and ‘word’ or
 The TDM output from
‘byte’ interleaving.
 With bit interleaving, one bit at
the multiplexer can
a time is sampled from each itself be multiplexed
tributary in turn; with word again with other
interleaving, the full PCM word tributaries following
of 8 bits (a ‘byte’) is sampled in either the PDH or
one go from each tributary in SDH/SONET formats,
turn.
and so on to create an
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
82

 Plesiochronous digital  This has several


hierarchy system consequences.
 The first consequence is
 The plesiochronous digital hierarchy
that ‘stuffing’ or
(PDH) was the first internationally ‘justification’ bits need to
standardized form of digital higher- be added to the TDM
order multiplexing and was deployed highway at each stage of
over a variety of cable and radio multiplexing
systems, as well as optical fiber cable  This bit stuffing or padding
around the World. is done to even up the
 Although now largely replaced by SDH digital blocks that are not
systems, there is still some PDH equal in size.
capacity in most incumbent operators’  There are several ways in
transmission networks.
which the number and
 The name ‘plesiochronous’, means position of the stuffing bits
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
83

 The European standard for PDH  The first stage multiplexes


higher-order transmission payloads four 2 Mbit/s digital blocks
into an 8 Mbit/s stream.
is shown in Fig 2.4.
 The actual line rate of the
 Four stages of TDM multiplexing output of this 2/8 muldex
are defined, each being a multiple (multiplexer-to-de-
of four. multiplexer assembly) is
8,448 kbit/s. This rate is
usually referred to as 8
Mbit/s or E2 line rate.
 The difference of the E2 rate
from four times 2,048 kbit/s is
the addition of an FAS and
stuffing bits.
 The subsequent stages of
Fig 2.4 Plesiochronous digital hierarchy
multiplexing similarly include
European standard
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
84

 Table 2.1 shows all the stages of PDH multiplexing, their


nominal and actual line rates, the designation used for
line systems at that rate and the number of 64 kbit/s
speech channels that could be carried.
Table 2.1 European PDH
standard
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
85
 The North American PDH standard is  In addition to the DS
shown in Fig 2.5 and Table 2.2. designations, the line rates
when made available for
customers’ use have the ‘T’
designations; for example, a
45 Mbit/s leased line is
referred to as a ‘T3’ line
system.
 Although PDH digital line
systems have been
deployed around the world
since 1970, they are
inflexible and cumbersome
to manage in large-scale
transmission networks due
to the multiplexer
Fig 2.5 Plesiochronous digital hierarchy North mountain problem.
American standard 
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
86

 For example, to extract a 2 Mbit/s digital block from the 140 Mbit/s system,
each stage of de-multiplexing is necessary in order to extract the stuffing bits
from the 140 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s, and 8 Mbit/s frames, respectively.
 Not only does the multiplexer mountain of a PDH network incur many
multiplexers, with the consequent cost and potential fault liability, but the
equipment need to be manually and carefully setup at installation.
Table 2.2 North American PDH
standard
87
The PCM Multiplexed Payload

Fig 2.6 A 140 Mbit/s PDH line


multiplexed system
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
88

 SONET and synchronous  Later the ITU-T defined a


universal standard based upon
digital hierarchy system SONET and extended to cover
 By the end of 1980s, a new the European conditions called
‘synchronous digital hierarchy’
standard of digital transmission (SDH).
was defined, originally by
 The main features of SONET
American National Standards and SDH are:
Institute (ANSI) in the US.
i. Direct access to tributaries
 This was designed to overcome the through the add/drop
multiplexer mountain and lack of multiplexing function
flexibility of PDH. (unlike the PDH
 The system is based upon optical multiplexer mountain);
rather than electrical interfaces ii. Standard optical interfaces
between transmission and to optical fibers carrying
the aggregate signal;
switching equipment in the
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
89

iv. Reduced operational costs  As the name indicate, the


compared to PDH because of system is based upon
the elimination of
manual jumpering between the
multiplexing synchronous
multiplexors; tributaries, i.e., they are all
v. Network management features;
operating exactly at one of a
fixed set of standard bit rates.
vi. End-to-end performance
monitoring capability.  This eliminates the need for the
use of variable amounts of bit
 The result of the above features is
stuffing and the tributaries are
that SONET and SDH networks use time-division multiplexed by
less equipment than the PDH directly byte-interleaving onto an
equivalent. aggregate highway.
 They have higher quality, reduced
 The location of a required
operational cost and lower fault
rate. synchronous tributary within
the frame can easily be found
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
90

 The tributaries are packed into a  The overall rate of the


basic container, which is known as basic STM is 155 Mbit/s.
the synchronous transport module  However, higher-speed
(STM) in SDH or the optical carrier STMs are created by
(OC) in SONET. increasing the number of
 Fig 2.7 illustrates the STM frame rows that are contained
within the 125 μs frame,
structure
each being a multiple ‘N’
 Although based on the 125 μs of the basic STM –
frame, the module actually designated ‘STM-N’
stretches over nine such frames,
 The standard rates for
creating a matrix of 270 columns
and 9 rows. the modules OC-N and
STM-N for SONET and
 Each element in the matrix is 64
SDH, respectively, are
kbit/s, that is the capacity of a shown in Table 2.3.
91
The PCM Multiplexed Payload

Fig 2.7 Basic STM-N frame


structure
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
92

 When packing the tributaries into the modules (i.e. OCs or STMs)
other channels in the form of management information as well as
the pointers, are also included.
 This packing process takes place in two stages of multiplexing, as
shown in Fig 2.8.
Table 2.3 Standard optical interfaces for
SONET and SDH
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
93

Fig 2.8 SDH packing


mechanism
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
94

 In the first stage:  the TUGs are packed into


 tributaries are placed into a higher-order containers,
lower-order container which, which together with an
together with an ‘overhead’ overhead carrying the
containing transmission link network management
network management information for the higher-
information, is inserted into a order path, is inserted into
virtual container (VC). the higher-order VC.
 several of these VCs are then  Finally, several higher-order
collected together to form a
VCs may be grouped into an
transmission unit (TU) using
administrative unit (AU)
pointers to indicate their
location. which forms the entire
payload of the STM-1, again
 Several TUs form a group (TUG),
using pointers to indicate
which is the output of the first
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
95

 There are a variety of ways that the  Fig 2.10 shows this simplified view
of the concept with a lorry
tributaries may be multiplexed up to containing a single container
the STM-N level, depending on the (STM), in which two different
size of the tributaries and the freight companies each have a
configuration of the transmission share – thus forming two AUs –
separated by a net curtain inside
links, these are illustrated in Figure the container.
2.9.  Within each AU are several large
 Whilst this multiplexing structure for crates (transport unit groups) each
containing several smaller crates
SDH and SONET might appear
(transport units).
complicated, the basic concept used
 It is these transport-unit crates
is relatively straight forward. that contain the various sized
 It can be easily explained by parcels for delivery (i.e. virtual
containers).
considering the synchronous
transmission modules (STM) as
containers on large transport
96
The PCM Multiplexed Payload

Fig 2.9 SDH multiplex


structure
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
97

 The location of the parcels  The functions of such a component,


within the crates is indicated by known as an ‘add-drop multiplexer’
information on written sheets (ADM) is shown in Fig 2.11, which
(i.e. ‘dockets’ or ‘inventory lists the potential optical interfaces
on the input and output ports to the
sheets’), corresponding to the
optical fiber bearers, and the
pointers in the SDH electrical interfaces to the set of
multiplexing system. tributaries.
 STMs-4, -16, and -48 are
analogous to proportionately
larger containers on the lorries
or possibly lorries towing a
series of container trailers.
 one of the big advantages of
equipment based on SONET
or SDH is the ability to inject Fig 2.11 A synchronous add-drop
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
98

Fig 2.10 SDH/SONET


concept
MODULE III
Circuit switching, Packet
switching, network control
and signaling packet network
technologies, internet
technologies
99
Circuit-switching systems

100

 Circuit-switching systems form the  The switching of voice calls


nodal functions of the PSTN and in 2G, 2.5G and 3G mobile
they are thus optimized for voice, networks is also performed
although they do successfully carry within digital circuit-
switched Mobile Switching
non-voice (i.e. data) traffic also.
Centers (MSC).
 There are two basic types of
 Calls on 4G (LTE) mobile
switching unit: networks may also ‘drop
 those that terminate and switch back’ to an MSC for
subscribers’ lines, i.e., ‘local exchanges switching, as will be
and discussed latter
 those that terminate and switch trunk  the switching of
and international lines only, with no subscribers’ lines that
subscriber lines. Examples include occurs at the local
‘trunk exchanges’ also known as ‘Main exchange is the most
Switching Units’, ‘junction tandems’,
Circuit-switching systems
101

 Subscriber switching units  If the call is to another


subscriber on that exchange –
 A simplified generalized local known as an ‘own-exchange
switching unit is shown call’ – it is connected through
schematically in Fig 3.1. the Route switch to a chosen
 At the left side of the unit free outlet to the called
subscriber’s (i.e. B’s)
subscriber’s lines terminate on
Concentrator switch.
line cards forming the front-
end of a subscribers’  The call can be completed by
Concentrator connecting through this
Concentrator switch to the line
switch.
card of subscriber B, and hence
 These line cards incorporate the to the terminating local line.
off-hook detector, ring-current
feed, and power feed.  The call can be completed by
connecting through this
 A call initiated by Subscriber A
Fig 3.1 Simplified generalized
local exchange
102
Circuit-switching systems
103

 This path, shown as a–b–c–g–h in  The second point to note is that


Fig 3.1, is established exclusively  With the direction of traffic flow
for this call until subscriber A or B shown for path (a) subscriber A’s
clears down. This is a Concentrator switch is concentrating
calls from many lines onto fewer
characteristic of circuit switching. outlets (usually 10:1).
 The signaling and control functions  The path (c) through the Route
necessary to set up the calls across switch is not concentrated, since the
the switches will be considered latter has an equal number of inlets
later in this course. and outlets; the switch is therefore
performing the function of
 There are two key points to note in interconnecting subscriber A’s
Fig 3.1 Concentrator switch to subscriber
 the call is initiated by A and so the B’s Concentrator switch.
traffic flow is deemed to go from A to  However, on the exit side of the
B via the three switches along the exchange the traffic flow over path
connection path described above, but (g) is passing through subscriber B’s
transmission paths within the Concentrator switch over path (h)
Circuit-switching systems
104
 Let’s now redraw the simplified
 Fig 3.1 also shows that external configuration of Fig 3.1 to reflect
routes from other exchanges the fact that Subscribers A and B
could be on the same
terminate on the Route switch. concentrator.
 This enables calls from these  This may be done by folding
exchanges to be connected via the switch configuration so
that all subscribers’ lines are
the Route switch to subscriber B on the left-hand side and all
via its Concentrator switch, as external traffic routes are on
shown by traffic path i–e–g–h. the right-hand side of the
Route switch.
 Calls from subscriber A that need  The connections through the
to be routed via other exchanges Route switch, are now as shown
are also switched across the Route in Fig 3.2 for
switch to the appropriate outgoing  path a–b–c–g-h for calls
between subscribers A and B
traffic route, shown as path a–b–d–j on two co-sited Concentrator
in the Fig. switches, and
Fig 3.2 Generalized local
exchange (folded)
Circuit-switching systems
105
Digital telephone switching systems

106
 Digital telephone
 This gives a complete picture of a switching systems
generalized circuit-switching unit,  Digital technology reduces
comprising several Concentrator the cost of equipment and
switch units and a Route switch. operations of communication
 The telephone exchange is systems, at the same time
improves quality of service.
commonly called a switch, but it
 Great majority of the
should be noted that it actually
telephone exchanges in the
consists of several switches, so it World, both fixed and mobile,
is actually a switch-block are digital.
 They are also computer
controlled – using a technique
known as ‘stored-program
control’ (SPC)
 We earlier discussed two PCM
Digital telephone switching systems
107
 Each multiplexor is connected at
 Fig 3.3 illustrates a simple block the 2 Mbit/s level to the input of the
schematic diagram of the main Concentrator switch-block.
functional entities in a digital local  From the other side of this switch-
exchange block, 2 Mbit/s links are taken to the
 This can represent a development of the co-located Route switch-block for
connection to the 2 Mbit/s digital
generalized local exchange of Fig 3.2 trunk links to other exchanges.
 Each subscriber copper line is terminated  The 2 Mbit/s output from the
on the main distribution frame (MDF) switching units are multiplexed
from where an internal copper pair cable together with other links onto
is run within the exchange building to the either PDH or SDH higher-speed
appropriate subscriber line card on the transmission links at the serving
Concentrator switch-block. CTS, which is usually in the same
 The line card performs all the necessary exchange building as the switch-
blocks.
subscriber-line termination functions as
well as converting the speech from the  Core Transmission Network
analogue signal on the subscriber’s line stations (CTS), or transmission
repeater stations (TRS) as it is
to a 64 kbit/s digital stream.
Fig 3.3 SPC digital exchange:
(functional overview)
Digital telephone switching systems
108
Digital telephone switching systems
109
 The subscriber line card is a very
 The Route switch-block is also
important part of local exchange
connected with 2 Mbit/s links to equipment. It is a small circuit card
the exchange’s SSNo.7 signalling that performs the functions of
equipment, for signalling to the terminating a copper line on the
control systems of distant switching system.
exchanges.
 The first of these functions is the
 Each subscriber’s line card is
provision of an interface between
monitored by a controller the high voltages and currents
which is used by the exchange present on the external copper pair
control system to manage the and the relatively low voltages of
setting up and clearing of the semiconductor electronic
calls, while the signalling from equipment of the digital switch-
subscribers’ telephones is blocks.
received by the MF equipment
 The line card is relatively expensive,
 The tone equipment supplies
and must be provided for each
supervisory tones, such as, subscriber’s line
‘network busy’, as well as
Digital telephone switching systems
110

 Note that all costs of a PSTN are 1. Battery: Application of the 50 V


allocated on a per-line basis for the direct current (DC) power supply
network between the local-loop to the subscriber’s line
termination at the subscriber’s
2. Overload: Protection of the digital
premises and the line card, switch-blocks from any voltage
 while all network costs from the surges on the external copper line
output of the line card and through – especially lightning.
all the switching and Core 3. Ringing current: Provision of an
transmission networks is allocated on interrupted electrical signal, of
a per-call basis.
about 75 V DC and 200 mA is
 The former is identified as the ‘Line required to ring a subscribers’ set
Business’ and the latter as the ‘Calls of telephone instruments.
Business’
4. Supervision: That is, the
 The set of functions provided by a
detection of the subscriber going
subscriber’s line card are best off-hook to signify call initiation,
remembered by applying the acronym and detection of off-hook
Digital telephone switching
111
systems
5. Codec: The analogue-to-digital (A/D)  Operation of the digital
conversion in the Go direction and switch-block
the digital-to-analogue conversion in
the Return direction, i.e., A/D coding  Fig 3.5 presents a simple example
and decoding (hence the term of a digital switch-block with five 2
‘codec’). Mbit/s PCM highways at the inlets
and five 2 Mbit/s PCM highways at
6. Hybrid: Two-to-four wire conversion the outlets.
from the
local loop to the Go and Return  It is important for all the PCM
format of the switches and Core systems to be synchronized and
Transmission Network. aligned with each other so that the
timing of all their timeslots
7. Test: The application of electrical coincide.
continuity testing at the endpoint of
 For example, all the PCM systems
the local loop. This is usually applied
automatically under remote control pass the 8 bits relating to their time
slot 1’s (TS1) simultaneously.
from an exchange maintenance

Fig 3.4 The components of a
subscriber’s line card
Digital telephone switching systems
112
Digital telephone switching
113
systems
 The stream of 8 bits now flows
every time TS3 occurs, that is,
every 125 μs, from inlet C to
outlet Y across the switch-
block.
 However, a problem occurs if
another call were to arrive in
the channel occupying TS3 of
highway A also destined for
highway Y, since the TS3 on
the outlet Y is already
occupied with the call from
highway C.
 The only solution is to
Fig 3.5 Digital switch-blocks transfer the call carried on
TS3 of highway A to a vacant
timeslot channel on the
required outlet highway Y –
Digital telephone switching
114 systems
 Therefore two forms of switching  Switching in a Mobile
are required in a practical digital Network Context
switch-block.
 The first is the switching of a
timeslot’s contents from an input 2
Mbit/s highway to the same number
(i.e. coincident) timeslot on an
outgoing highway, a function known as
‘space switching’.
 The second is the switching of the
contents of a time slot of an inlet
highway to a different value (i.e. non- Fig 3.6 Architecture of a
cellular network
coincident) time slot on the outlet
highway, a function known as ‘time  Consider the basic
switching’. architecture of a cellular
network, as shown in Fig 3.6.

Switching in a Mobile Network Context

115

 These BSs are connected by a  Typically, an MSC would have several


BSCs in its
fixed terrestrial transmission catchment areas, each of which has from
link to a BSC using SDH or a few up to a 100 dependent cells.
SONET over optical fibre cable  A full national mobile network might
or a microwave radio system comprise some 20–100 MSCs, depending
on the size of the country.
 The BSC manages the
 Notice that the access control and radio
temporary allocation of radio system are provided by the base stations
channels to handsets on and base station
demand in each of its controllers.
dependent cells through the  The MSC provides mobility management,
use of a control channel with identification and authentication of the
each of the base stations. handsets as well as the control,
switching and routing of calls.
 The send and receive speech  The MSC acts as a combined local and
paths from the handsets are trunk exchange within the mobile
network:
Switching in a Mobile Network Context

116

 From a traffic switching point of  However, as Fig3.7 shows, in a


view, it can be seen from Fig 3.7 cellular network these functions are
that the equivalent of the spread between the mobile handset
concentration function provided and the MSC.
by the subscriber concentrator
switch-block in a fixed network is
provided by the base station
serving the cell.
 Radio channels are allocated to
handsets only on demand when a
call is in progress, this constitutes
traffic concentration between the
many handsets and the small
number of radio channels serving
the cell.
Fig 3.7 BORSCHT functions in a
 Recall that in a fixed network, the
mobile system
BORSCHT functions are all
Switching in a Mobile Network Context

117

 In the handset there is  At the BS, BSC or MSC there is no


provision of any per-user
 a battery (B),
equipment, so unlike a fixed
 a ringing tone device (R) network local exchange, there is no
powered by the battery, and equivalent of the test (T) or
 part of the supervision function electrical overload protection (O)
functions.
(S), and also
 So in the mobile network, the
 the codec (C) providing the
functions undertaken by equipment
analogue-to-digital (and vice that represents some 70% of the cost
versa) conversion of the voice. of a fixed-network local exchange are
 No hybrid (H) is required provided by the user’s handset in a
mobile network
since the communication  This means that the mobile handset
from the handset is on a is not only much more expensive
completely ‘four wire’ basis, than a fixed-line telephone
with separate send and instrument, but also the technical
Packet Switching
118

 There are several key differences  Data is usually highly


between the characteristics of susceptible to error, every
voice and data that necessitate bit is precious. While
the different requirements for digitized voice is fairly
successful communications. robust to errors and even
These are summarized below the loss or corruption of
 Data applications may be tolerant or many bits is not perceived
intolerant of delay on a by the listener.
communication network, known as  There are many ways that
‘latency’ tolerance or intolerance.
But voice is always latency data can be organized,
intolerant. i.e., many protocols are
 Data may be generated as a used. But voice encoding
continuous stream or in bursts. is highly standardized.
Digitized voice is continuous  Data may be encrypted as
Packet Switching
119

 Circuit-switched telephone  Not only does packet switching


connections through a PSTN give better network utilization and
can be used to carry data economics than circuit switching,
services, however, the nature of but it also copes well with the
speed variation and other special
circuit switching, with its
characteristics of data.
continuous connection held for
 A data packet comprises of a string
the duration of the call, does
of bits with the front end formed
not provide the most into a header, which gives the
economical communications destination address and the
medium for most types of data. remainder of the packet forming the
payload that carry the actual data
 Also, the relatively slow speed of for transmission.
call set-up can be a problem for  The stream of data is thus
short bursts of data. deposited into one or more
 The specific needs of data services packets, each with an appropriate
have been addressed by address, then the packets are sent
Packet Switching
120

 Fig 3.8 shows the difference between  Similarly, the data is placed into the
the packet approach with the payload of the packet and the
continuous path of a circuit-switched destination address inserted into the
connection. header.
 A useful analogy for packet switching  Like the postal service, other
is that of a postal service. information may be included in the
header, for example, originating
 Users put their letter into an address, date of dispatch and a
envelope on which they write the reference number.
destination address.  Different capacity envelopes are used
in the postal case to handle the range
of lengths and size of letters, a
similar arrangement exists for the
data packet services, different sizes
of packets are used

Fig 3.8 Packet and circuit switching


Packet Switching
121
 There are two fundamental
 The equivalent of packet
ways that packets can be
switching is the role of the
switched through a network:
sorting office, that is, the
reading of the envelopes and  It is either ‘connection-
the depositing into the orientated’ or ‘connectionless’
appropriate outgoing bags modes of operation.
destined to be conveyed to the  Connection-orientated packet
next stage of sorting. mode
 Different sizes of envelopes are  Fig 3.9 illustrates the
accommodated by the postal
bags and all the envelopes are connection-orientated mode.
intermingled or interleaved It works by establishing a
within the bags as they are virtual path (VP) for the
transported by van to the next packets to follow.
sorting office.
 This happens in three stages:
 Just like the postal service, data
Packet Switching
122

 Usually, a predetermined path is


decided for a given message
 In the example of Fig 3.9, during
the set-up phase it is determined
that all packets sent between
terminal x and the server at y will
have a virtual route through the
path label 43 from A to D, and the
path labeled 25 on D to E.
 Each of the designated routers
(packet exchanges), in this case A,
D, and E, have the appropriate
outgoing route identified in their
Fig 3.9 Connection-orientated
packet switching routing tables against VP 43 and
VP 25.
 All packets flowing between x and
y with the
Packet Switching
123
 The paths may be set up for  The routers, A to E, handle packets
permanent operation – known as from many sources, with the received
‘permanent virtual circuit’ (PVC) packets queuing on their inlet
working; or they may be set-up routes.
whenever a data session is required
– a service known as ‘switched
virtual circuit’ (SVC).
 The earliest form of public packet
data service, X.25, used the PVC
form of connection orientated
operation
 Connectionless packet
mode
 The connectionless mode of packet
switching treats each packet in a Fig 3.10 Connectionless packet
switching
stream completely independently
Packet Switching
124

 As the first packet from terminal x is  Thus, the fourth packet might be
received at router A the address routed through A–C–D–E, and the
contents of the header is examined fifth packet routed through A–B–D–E.
and the outgoing route, say to router  This independent handling of each
D chosen from a routing table. packet means that the stream of
 In this way, the packet progresses packets between x and y could
through to Router E. potentially all follow different routes
 The second and third packet may and consequently arrive at various
times and out of sequence.
follow the same route, each router
examining the full address in the  The most famous example of
header and making an independent connectionless packet working is
decision on how to route the packet that of the Internet Protocol (IP), as
onwards. used in the (public) Internet and
 As the loading on the network
corporate private intranets.
increases with time due to the
generation of packet flows from other
users, the queues on the routers will
Packet Switching
125

 Comparison of packet  On the other hand, the


switching modes connectionless mode has
 The connection-oriented relatively simple control,
which is robust and able to
approach provides a high
cope with contention and
degree of capacity and
failure of routers in the
performance management of
network, but it does not
the services running over its have a guaranteed QoS.
switches.
 In the OSI networking
 This is because the control
model, the connectionless
mechanism will allow new VPs packet switching is placed
to be established only if there at Layer Three while the
is sufficient capacity through connection-orientated
the nominated switches. mode at Layer Two.

Network Signaling and Control
126

 Signaling may be defined  Signaling in either domain has


generically as the extension of two purposes.
control information from one  The first is that of ‘supervisory’
or ‘line’ information, necessary
network node or user to another to manage the link resources for
over one or more links. the call.
 It is used in two distinct domains:  A simple example is the ‘off-hook’
signal in a fixed network, which
 between the user and the serving signifies that the subscriber
wishes to initiate a call.
node (e.g. subscriber concentrator
switch or a base station) – known as  The second is that of ‘address’ –
‘user’ or ‘subscriber’ signaling; and for example, the telephone
number of the called subscriber.
 between network nodes (e.g.
 The tone telephone has a set of
exchanges, or MSC) – known as ‘inter-
exchange’ or ‘inter-nodal’ signaling. 12 push buttons used to indicate
the address signaling, each of
 Fig 3.11 shows the domains of which selects the appropriate
Network Signaling and Control
127

Fig 3.11 The domains of


signaling
Network Signaling and Control
128

 The signals are detected at the far  The standard telephone subscriber
end by a set of six filters, each local loop uses CAS, with both the
tuned to one of the frequencies. line and address signaling carried
 In addition to the digits 0–9 the MF over the subscriber’s pair.
phones provide the ‘star’ and ‘hash’  Advantage of the CAS system is
keys for extra address information. simplicity but it has the disadvantage
of restricted signaling since
 There are two types of signaling signaling cannot take place during a
arrangement based on the speech phase.
relationship between the signaling  The alternative arrangement is to
channels and the corresponding
have a single common separate
speech channels.
channel which carries the signaling
 One is ‘channel-associated for a set of speech circuits, as shown
signaling (CAS)’, in which the in Fig 3.12 (b).
signaling and speech traffic  This single channel can carry the
share the same transmission signaling at any time, including
path on a permanent and during the conversation phase, and it
129

Fig 3.12 Relationships between voice channels and their


signaling channels.
(a) Channel-associated signaling (CAS).
(b) Common-channel signaling
Network Signaling and Control
130

 Subscriber signaling is  ITU common-channel signaling


channel-associated within the system number 7
mobile networks and fixed  This is a universally applied
Access Network for customers international standard CCS system
and is referred to variously: CCSS
served by copper cable; while No.7, SS7, etc.
 common-channel signaling  The signaling nodes are physically
systems are used for the more part of the
complex needs of high-speed switching systems, and the
and data services, such as signaling links are carried over the
Core Transmission Network, but
ISDN and PBXs they are functionally part of a
 Currently, almost all inter- stand-alone network, which is
nodal signaling is based on managed and dimensioned
separately.
the ITU-T Common Channel
 Each SS7 node is identified by an
Signaling System Number 7
Network Signaling and Control
131

 These messages can be routed ii. Exchange A then sends the first of
directly between nodes or sent via the SS7 messages to the trunk
one or more intermediate nodes exchange.
 There are special SS7 nodes which • This message indicates that a call is
act as tandem points for SS7 to be set-up for channel 17 and
messages, known as signal transfer gives the phone number or ‘address’
of the called subscriber B. This is
points (STPs)
known as the ‘initial address
 Fig 3.13 shows a simple application message’ (IAM).
of the SS7 in setting up a call iii.The control system of the trunk
between two subscribers exchange then determines that the
 Consider a call from subscriber A on call is to one of its local exchanges
local exchange A which is set up via and seeks a free channel on the
an intermediate trunk exchange to traffic route, say channel 25, to
the terminating local exchange B exchange B.
serving called-subscriber B. • It then requests an IAM to be sent
i. On receipt of the dialed digits from to exchange B, which contains the
132
Network Signaling and Control

Fig 3.13 A typical telephone


call sequence
Network Signaling and Control
133

iv. On receiving this message, the control • A continuous path then exists from
system at exchange B then checks subscriber A’s telephone all the way
whether the line of subscriber B is through the network to exchange B. The
free. If it is free, ringing current is ringing tone generated by exchange B can
now be heard by the calling subscriber A.
sent to the line.
• A reply SS7 message is then initiated vii.As soon as the control system at
by exchange B, which indicates that a exchange B detects that subscriber B has
correct telephone number has been answered the phone by going ‘off-hook’,
received and that ringing current is ringing current is ceased and the switch-
being applied to subscriber B’s line. through exchange B’s switch-blocks is
v. The control system at the trunk established between channel 25 from the
exchange recognizes that the message trunk exchange and subscriber B’s line.
from exchange B relates to a The speech path has thus been extended
particular call in progress, and sends to subscriber B.
an ‘address complete’ message to viii.A return ‘answer’ message initiated by
exchange A. exchange B, indicating successful call
vi. On receipt of this response, the set-up, is sent to the trunk exchange,
control system of exchange A sets up which in turn sends a similar message to
the ‘switch through’, that is, a exchange A.
Network Signaling and Control
134

ix. The call-clear down sequence  In this call scenario, ten SS7
begins as soon as the caller messages are sent between the three
replaces their handset. exchanges. If any of the messages are
• A ‘clear-forward’ message is corrupted during transmission or
sent from exchange A to the lost, a retransmission of the message
trunk exchange, which in turn is requested and made.
sends a clear forward message  This link-by-link progression of SS7
to exchange B. messages to set up and clear-down
• telephone calls is also applied within
The speech path is then
cleared down across the mobile networks, although the
switch-blocks of all three sequence is more complex and
exchanges. The charging for additional types of messages are
the call ceases and the call required.
record is completed by  Fig 3.14 gives a simplified
exchange A’s control system. representation of the delivery
x. Finally, return ‘release guard’ mechanism and the messages.
Network Signaling and Control
135
 A ‘flag’, indicates the
front and back end of
the SU.
 Between the flags
there are specified
fields, allocated to
specific functions,
although for
simplicity only the
main fields are
shown.
 The first is the check
sum, a 16-bit binary
Fig 3.14 SS7 message and signal unit number. Examination
format of this checksum at
the distant end of the
SS7 signaling link
Network Signaling and Control
136

 Next is the signaling  The final two fields are used to carry
information field, that is, the forward and backward sequence
numbers.
the actual message to be
 These are used to count and identify
sent. the sequence the SUs sent in each
 This field may vary in length up direction so that retransmissions of
to a maximum of 272 bytes, specific SUs can be requested and later
depending on the nature of the placed in the correct sequence upon
receipt.
signaling information being
sent.  Each type of message will have a
 The next field is used to different format depending on the
nature of the signaling information to
indicate which of the be sent
portfolio of messages is
being used.
 Since the size may vary

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