Telecommunication Networks I (ETEN503)
Telecommunication Networks I (ETEN503)
NS NETWORKS I
(ETEN503)
1
Lecturer: Prof E.N. Onwuka
2
Introduction
There are two types of communication
networks: circuit-switched networks and
packet-switched networks
In circuit-switched networks a dedicated physical
(digital or analog) circuit between the calling
and called party is set up at the start of a call
and released when the call has ended.
Traditional telephone networks are circuit-
switched networks and collectively form the
switched-circuit network (SCN).
Today these networks are used for speech and
3
Introduction
Initially, all communication networks were
circuit-switched networks.
Data networks, consisting of a number of nodes
connected by digital links, made their
appearance around 1970.
In these networks, a call (or session) consists
of a series of short data bursts (packets)
followed by relatively long silent intervals.
A physical circuit therefore does not have to be
dedicated to a single data call but can be shared
4 Introduction
The terms “telecommunication network”
and “data network” usually imply circuit-
mode and packet-mode, respectively.
However, advances in packet technology
are making possible voice communication
in data networks, in what is called
convergence of voice and data.
The long-term trend is toward packet
communication for voice, video, and data.
5 Introduction
Fig 1.1 shows a small part
of a telecommunication
network. It consists of
exchanges, trunks, and
subscriber lines .
Trunks are circuits between
exchanges, and the group of
trunks between a pair of
exchanges is known as a trunk
group (TG).
Subscriber lines (SLs) are
circuits between a
subscriber S and the local Fig 1.1 Partial view of a
telecommunication
exchange (A, B, C). network
Exchanges D and E do not
6 Introduction
Calls: The circuit in case (b) consists of
SLp, a temporary path across
A call requires a communication
exchange A, trunk T1, a temporary
circuit (connection) between two path across exchange B, and SLr.
subscribers.
The connections of Fig. 1.2 are
Fig 1.2 shows a number of
set up (switched “on”) at the
connections in the network of Fig. start of a call and released
1.1 that involve subscriber Sp. (switched “off”) when the call
In Fig. 1.2(a), Sp is on a call with ends.
Sq who is attached to the same
exchange.
Calls of this type are known as
intraexchange calls.
The circuit for the call consists
Fig 1.2 Connections
of the subscriber lines SLp and
involving subscriber Sp
SLq and a temporary path in
7
Introduction
Setup and Release.: Subscriber Sp sends a request-
for-service signal to exchange A
The setup and release of (by lifting the
connections in handset of a telephone) and
telecommunication networks then signals the digits of the
are triggered by signals. telephone number of Sr (with the
dial or keyset of the telephone).
Starting and ending a call
involve signaling
between the subscribers and
their local exchanges and,
for interexchange calls,
signaling between the
exchanges along the
connection. Fig 1.3 Setup of a
connection
8 Introduction
From the received number, When exchange B receives
exchange A determines that the seizure signal and the
Sr is served by exchange B, called number, it checks
and that the call is to be whether Sr is idle.
routed out on a trunk in If it is idle, it sends a
group TG1 (Fig. 1.1). ringing signal on SLr, and a
It then searches for an ringing-tone signal on T1,
idle trunk in this group to inform Sp.
and finds trunk T1. When Sr lifts the handset
Exchange A now seizes the of the telephone, an
trunk and sends a seizure answer signal is sent to
signal, followed by signals exchange B, which then
that represent digits of the stops the ringing signal
9
Introduction
The connection is now One-Way and Both-way Trunk
complete and allows Groups.
speech or other In Fig. 1.1, there is at most one trunk
communications between group between two exchanges. Let us
the subscribers. consider the group TG1.
At the end of the call, The network should allow calls
originating at A with destination B
another signaling
and calls originating at B with
sequence takes place to destination A. Therefore, both
release the connection. exchanges are allowed to seize trunks
in TG1.
A trunk group whose trunks can be
seized by the exchanges at both ends is
known as a bothway trunk group
10
Introduction
A pair of exchanges can Two-way groups have an economic
also be interconnected by advantage because, for a given traffic
two one-way trunk groups. intensity, the number of trunks of a
bothway trunk group can be smaller than
The trunks in one-way the total number of trunks in the one-way
groups can be seized by groups.
one exchange only. In bothway groups, it can happen that
For example, exchanges A the exchanges at both ends of a trunk
and B could be group seize the same trunk at the same
interconnected by two one- time (double seizure).
way trunk groups TG1A and There are several alternatives to deal
TG1B, whose trunks can be with a double seizure. For example, it
seized by A and B, can be arranged that one exchange
respectively. continues the setup, and the other
exchange backs off (tries to. seize
Both arrangements are another trunk for its call).
used in actual networks.
Networks Fig 1.4
11
Networks
The telecommunication network is an
aggregation of interconnected
networks of several types.
Networks can be classified as shown
in Fig. 1.4. In the first place, the
(global) telecommunication network
consists of national networks and the
international network.
In turn, a national network is a
combination of public and private
networks.
Public networks are for
general use; private networks
can be used only by
employees of the
12 Networks
A public network consists of a
“fixed” network and a number of
“cellular mobile” networks.
In the United States, the fixed
public network, known as the
public switched
telecommunication network
(PSTN), consists of about 150
LATA (local access and transport
area) networks interconnected
by networks that are known as
IC (interexchange carrier), or
long-distance, networks.
Fig 1.5 Interconnection of LATA and IC
LATA and IC networks
networks
are interconnected by
13 Networks
Some local exchanges (A) have a
direct trunk group to an exchange
of an IC, other exchanges (B, C, D,
E) have access to the IC network
via an intermediate (tandem)
exchange in their respective
LATAs.
A cellular network has one or
more mobile switching centers
(MSCs) as shown in Fig. 1.6.
Each MSC is connected by an
internetwork trunk group to a
Fig 1.6 Interconnection of fixed and
nearby tandem exchange T of a mobile networks
fixed (LATA) network.
14
Networks
Private Branch Exchange
(PBXs)
These are exchanges owned by
government agencies,
businesses, and so on and
located in buildings that
belong to these organizations.
A PBX enables the employees
in a building to call each other Fig 1.7 Interconnection of private
and to make and receive calls network and a LATA network.
ALG, access line group; TG, trunk
from subscribers served by the group (public); TTG, tie trunk group
public network. (private); PBX, private branch
exchange
A PBX is connected by an
15
Networks
An organization with PBXs in several International Calls.
cities can establish a private network
that consists of the PBXs and a
Fig 1.8 shows the
number of tie trunk groups (TTG) interconnection of long-
between the public local exchanges to distance (IC) networks in
which their PBXs are attached. different countries.
A TTG is a “private” group that is For a call from country A to
leased by the LATA operator and is
dedicated to private-network calls.
country C, an IC network in
country A routes the connection
In Fig. 1.7, the connection for a call to an international switching
between public branch exchanges X center (ISC).
and Y uses a trunk of TTG1 and is
switched in the public local exchanges An ISC has national trunk
A and B. groups to exchanges of its IC
There are also virtual private networks and international trunk
(VPNs). They appear to a business as a groups to ISCs in foreign
private network but use the trunks of
16
Networks
telephone setup
Fig 1.9 simple
(a
Let’s extend this basic )
two-person scenario to
the more general case of
several people with
phones wishing to be able
to talk to each other.
For example, a four-
telephone scenario is (b
)
The Need for Exchange/Central
21
Switch
Not only does each telephone As the number of phones becomes
need to terminate three links large, the number of directly
connected links approaches n2/2.
rather than just one, but it also
So, for a 100 telephones, 5000
needs a 1-to-3 selection
direct lines will be needed, and
mechanism to choose which of selection mechanism on each
the links should be connected phone will be more complicated,
to converse with the required making the design uneconomical.
telephone.
This requires a selection switch in
each phone and an ID for all
connected phones.
This arrangement may work for
a network of few phones – like Fig 1.6
the intercom in a home or Fig 1.10 Direct interconnection of
several phones
The Need for Exchange/Central
Switch
22
To solve this problem, a central
hub (commonly called an
exchange or central office) was
introduced.
Each phone is linked to it directly,
and provides connectivity
between any two phone lines, on
demand (Fig 1.11). With a single
exchange serving n phones only n
links are required
The exchange manages both
power and connectivity for the
phones, which is both more
economical and convenient. Fig 1.11 Provision of
The Need for Exchange/Central
23
Switch
He then monitors the
Today, exchanges are automated, in indicator lamps of the calling
the earlier days, the method of lines to know when any of
connecting two telephone lines them hangs up.
together was through a human The operator also needed to
operator using jumper wires across write down the numbers of the
a patching panel. calling parties and the time of
the call to enable billing.
At that time, each telephone line is
Though today’s exchanges are
terminated on the panel in a socket
with an associated small indicator fully automated, there are still
occasions when human
lamp.
intervention is needed, e.g.
The human operator was notified In emergency situations,
that telephone A wished to make and in rendering certain
call by the glowing of the relevant assistance to subscribers.
lamp, activated by telephone A Call centers are used for
going ‘off-hook’. these.
Optimal Number of Exchanges
24
In a small village, all the lines could The location of the exchanges
easily be connected to a single in an area is important in
telephone exchange, since the distances getting the optimal cost.
are short. They should be located where
In a larger area, the question of how the sum of all the subscriber
many exchanges are needed arises. In line length will be shortest –
known as the center of gravity.
Fig 1.12 a large number of phones
needed to be connected. The longer the line length, the
Should it be one exchange or many? What more the resistance. To be
number of exchange is optimal? feasible the resistance of a
subscriber line must be below
One exchange will give rise to many
2 kΩ. To meet this, longer line
lengthy subscriber lines, which will length must be of larger
increase cost. More exchanges will diameter, but more expensive.
shorten the subscriber line but will
bring the cost of building the exchanges In very lengthy lines,
and junction routes to interconnect inductors are used to reduce
them. line losses.
25
51
Access to the Internet
The Fig also shows how a user gains
access to a website, with a web server Dial-up via the PSTN and
shown linked to Local ISP #2. It also ISDN
shows a domain name server (DNS)
connected to that ISP; this device acts as The original way of
a directory listing Internet addresses for accessing the Internet is
web names through a telephone call,
Users access their ISPs over links provided thus taking advantage of
by one of a range of fixed networks (PSTN,
integrated services digital network (ISDN),
the full interconnectivity
leased line, xDSL (digital subscriber line; of the PSTN, its ubiquity
DSL) broadband and Cable TV), and mobile and its ease of use.
networks
The procedure is in two
For wireless connection users may link
stages: the first is a
their terminals – laptops, tablets, etc. telephony call to the ISP;
over Wi-Fi, to the fixed broadband links to the second stage is a data
the ISPs. transfer session between
Access to the Internet
52
53
One solution is for the ISP
The ISP then routes the data
to take a special service
between the computer and the from the PSTN operator
Internet for the duration of the using special numbers,
session. which enables the users to
have free or reduced rate
When the user indicates that the
call charges, and the ISP to
session is over, the modem card in the be able to recover the
computer creates the equivalent of the charges through
‘on-hook’ condition so that the subscriptions from the
telephone exchange clears the call to registered users.
the ISP in the normal way
Alternatively the national
Generally, the exchange handles regulator can make special
the call to the ISP as standard flat rate tariffs available as a
telephony, in terms of charging wholesale interconnect
and routing. service to other operators
(PNOs) or ISPs
However, the users want to be able
Access to the Internet
54
56
The telephony is carried over
At the subscriber premises, the
a copper pair to the input of
internal telephone line and the the local exchange switch.
computer are separately connected The data stream carrying
to a ‘splitter’ within the ADSL the Internet-bound traffic
termination equipment. is connected to the DSLAM
This device directs the computer (digital subscriber line
access module) equipment,
output to the high-speed data which combines the data
channel on the line, while enabling from many such lines onto
the telephone signal to be carried a high-speed transmission
in the normal way on the local line. link to a data network.
The ADSL splitter and terminating This network carries the
equipment located at the exchange Internet-bound data to the
connecting points of the
similarly separates the telephony
various ISPs in the country. A
and high-speed data signal similar process applies in the
Access to the Internet
57
59
60
Over mobile network
Over leased line access
Of course, a popular way
Leased lines are primarily designed
to access the Internet
to provide a dedicated end-to-end following the advent of
communications channel (narrow
smartphones and tablets
band or broadband) between two
is via a mobile network
subscribers’ premises to carry either
voice or data traffic privately. connection.
However, leased lines may also be The access from the
used to provide Internet access over phone or tablet may be
high-capacity dedicated links from via the mobile network or
large business premises (e.g. office via a local Wi-Fi
block, university campus) to their connection to the fixed
ISP. broadband service using
one of the configurations
The Special Networks Associated With a PSTN
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62
70
71
The first of these support
30-Channel PCM Multiplex channels is carried in timeslot
In this standard the primary 0, ‘TS0’
multiplexed structure is based on a it is known as the
timeframe divided into 32 ‘synchronization’ channel,
timeslots, as shown in Fig 2.1 and is used to indicate the
start of the frame
The timeframe length is 125 μs,
The second support channel is
arising from the sampling rate of
carried in timeslot 16 (TS16)
8 kHz, which is the minimum
and is used to carry the call-
sampling rate for a speech control signaling between the
waveform with frequency 4 kHz exchanges at either end of the
Thus, each timeslot in this frame PCM route.
occupies 1/32 of 125 μs, which is, Timeslots 1–15 are used to
3.9 μs carry speech channels 1–15,
The 32 timeslots of the frame respectively; timeslots 17–31
are used to carry speech
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The PCM Multiplexed Payload
For example, to extract a 2 Mbit/s digital block from the 140 Mbit/s system,
each stage of de-multiplexing is necessary in order to extract the stuffing bits
from the 140 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s, and 8 Mbit/s frames, respectively.
Not only does the multiplexer mountain of a PDH network incur many
multiplexers, with the consequent cost and potential fault liability, but the
equipment need to be manually and carefully setup at installation.
Table 2.2 North American PDH
standard
87
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
When packing the tributaries into the modules (i.e. OCs or STMs)
other channels in the form of management information as well as
the pointers, are also included.
This packing process takes place in two stages of multiplexing, as
shown in Fig 2.8.
Table 2.3 Standard optical interfaces for
SONET and SDH
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
93
There are a variety of ways that the Fig 2.10 shows this simplified view
of the concept with a lorry
tributaries may be multiplexed up to containing a single container
the STM-N level, depending on the (STM), in which two different
size of the tributaries and the freight companies each have a
configuration of the transmission share – thus forming two AUs –
separated by a net curtain inside
links, these are illustrated in Figure the container.
2.9. Within each AU are several large
Whilst this multiplexing structure for crates (transport unit groups) each
containing several smaller crates
SDH and SONET might appear
(transport units).
complicated, the basic concept used
It is these transport-unit crates
is relatively straight forward. that contain the various sized
It can be easily explained by parcels for delivery (i.e. virtual
containers).
considering the synchronous
transmission modules (STM) as
containers on large transport
96
The PCM Multiplexed Payload
100
106
Digital telephone
This gives a complete picture of a switching systems
generalized circuit-switching unit, Digital technology reduces
comprising several Concentrator the cost of equipment and
switch units and a Route switch. operations of communication
The telephone exchange is systems, at the same time
improves quality of service.
commonly called a switch, but it
Great majority of the
should be noted that it actually
telephone exchanges in the
consists of several switches, so it World, both fixed and mobile,
is actually a switch-block are digital.
They are also computer
controlled – using a technique
known as ‘stored-program
control’ (SPC)
We earlier discussed two PCM
Digital telephone switching systems
107
Each multiplexor is connected at
Fig 3.3 illustrates a simple block the 2 Mbit/s level to the input of the
schematic diagram of the main Concentrator switch-block.
functional entities in a digital local From the other side of this switch-
exchange block, 2 Mbit/s links are taken to the
This can represent a development of the co-located Route switch-block for
connection to the 2 Mbit/s digital
generalized local exchange of Fig 3.2 trunk links to other exchanges.
Each subscriber copper line is terminated The 2 Mbit/s output from the
on the main distribution frame (MDF) switching units are multiplexed
from where an internal copper pair cable together with other links onto
is run within the exchange building to the either PDH or SDH higher-speed
appropriate subscriber line card on the transmission links at the serving
Concentrator switch-block. CTS, which is usually in the same
The line card performs all the necessary exchange building as the switch-
blocks.
subscriber-line termination functions as
well as converting the speech from the Core Transmission Network
analogue signal on the subscriber’s line stations (CTS), or transmission
repeater stations (TRS) as it is
to a 64 kbit/s digital stream.
Fig 3.3 SPC digital exchange:
(functional overview)
Digital telephone switching systems
108
Digital telephone switching systems
109
The subscriber line card is a very
The Route switch-block is also
important part of local exchange
connected with 2 Mbit/s links to equipment. It is a small circuit card
the exchange’s SSNo.7 signalling that performs the functions of
equipment, for signalling to the terminating a copper line on the
control systems of distant switching system.
exchanges.
The first of these functions is the
Each subscriber’s line card is
provision of an interface between
monitored by a controller the high voltages and currents
which is used by the exchange present on the external copper pair
control system to manage the and the relatively low voltages of
setting up and clearing of the semiconductor electronic
calls, while the signalling from equipment of the digital switch-
subscribers’ telephones is blocks.
received by the MF equipment
The line card is relatively expensive,
The tone equipment supplies
and must be provided for each
supervisory tones, such as, subscriber’s line
‘network busy’, as well as
Digital telephone switching systems
110
115
116
117
Fig 3.8 shows the difference between Similarly, the data is placed into the
the packet approach with the payload of the packet and the
continuous path of a circuit-switched destination address inserted into the
connection. header.
A useful analogy for packet switching Like the postal service, other
is that of a postal service. information may be included in the
header, for example, originating
Users put their letter into an address, date of dispatch and a
envelope on which they write the reference number.
destination address. Different capacity envelopes are used
in the postal case to handle the range
of lengths and size of letters, a
similar arrangement exists for the
data packet services, different sizes
of packets are used
As the first packet from terminal x is Thus, the fourth packet might be
received at router A the address routed through A–C–D–E, and the
contents of the header is examined fifth packet routed through A–B–D–E.
and the outgoing route, say to router This independent handling of each
D chosen from a routing table. packet means that the stream of
In this way, the packet progresses packets between x and y could
through to Router E. potentially all follow different routes
The second and third packet may and consequently arrive at various
times and out of sequence.
follow the same route, each router
examining the full address in the The most famous example of
header and making an independent connectionless packet working is
decision on how to route the packet that of the Internet Protocol (IP), as
onwards. used in the (public) Internet and
As the loading on the network
corporate private intranets.
increases with time due to the
generation of packet flows from other
users, the queues on the routers will
Packet Switching
125
The signals are detected at the far The standard telephone subscriber
end by a set of six filters, each local loop uses CAS, with both the
tuned to one of the frequencies. line and address signaling carried
In addition to the digits 0–9 the MF over the subscriber’s pair.
phones provide the ‘star’ and ‘hash’ Advantage of the CAS system is
keys for extra address information. simplicity but it has the disadvantage
of restricted signaling since
There are two types of signaling signaling cannot take place during a
arrangement based on the speech phase.
relationship between the signaling The alternative arrangement is to
channels and the corresponding
have a single common separate
speech channels.
channel which carries the signaling
One is ‘channel-associated for a set of speech circuits, as shown
signaling (CAS)’, in which the in Fig 3.12 (b).
signaling and speech traffic This single channel can carry the
share the same transmission signaling at any time, including
path on a permanent and during the conversation phase, and it
129
These messages can be routed ii. Exchange A then sends the first of
directly between nodes or sent via the SS7 messages to the trunk
one or more intermediate nodes exchange.
There are special SS7 nodes which • This message indicates that a call is
act as tandem points for SS7 to be set-up for channel 17 and
messages, known as signal transfer gives the phone number or ‘address’
of the called subscriber B. This is
points (STPs)
known as the ‘initial address
Fig 3.13 shows a simple application message’ (IAM).
of the SS7 in setting up a call iii.The control system of the trunk
between two subscribers exchange then determines that the
Consider a call from subscriber A on call is to one of its local exchanges
local exchange A which is set up via and seeks a free channel on the
an intermediate trunk exchange to traffic route, say channel 25, to
the terminating local exchange B exchange B.
serving called-subscriber B. • It then requests an IAM to be sent
i. On receipt of the dialed digits from to exchange B, which contains the
132
Network Signaling and Control
iv. On receiving this message, the control • A continuous path then exists from
system at exchange B then checks subscriber A’s telephone all the way
whether the line of subscriber B is through the network to exchange B. The
free. If it is free, ringing current is ringing tone generated by exchange B can
now be heard by the calling subscriber A.
sent to the line.
• A reply SS7 message is then initiated vii.As soon as the control system at
by exchange B, which indicates that a exchange B detects that subscriber B has
correct telephone number has been answered the phone by going ‘off-hook’,
received and that ringing current is ringing current is ceased and the switch-
being applied to subscriber B’s line. through exchange B’s switch-blocks is
v. The control system at the trunk established between channel 25 from the
exchange recognizes that the message trunk exchange and subscriber B’s line.
from exchange B relates to a The speech path has thus been extended
particular call in progress, and sends to subscriber B.
an ‘address complete’ message to viii.A return ‘answer’ message initiated by
exchange A. exchange B, indicating successful call
vi. On receipt of this response, the set-up, is sent to the trunk exchange,
control system of exchange A sets up which in turn sends a similar message to
the ‘switch through’, that is, a exchange A.
Network Signaling and Control
134
ix. The call-clear down sequence In this call scenario, ten SS7
begins as soon as the caller messages are sent between the three
replaces their handset. exchanges. If any of the messages are
• A ‘clear-forward’ message is corrupted during transmission or
sent from exchange A to the lost, a retransmission of the message
trunk exchange, which in turn is requested and made.
sends a clear forward message This link-by-link progression of SS7
to exchange B. messages to set up and clear-down
• telephone calls is also applied within
The speech path is then
cleared down across the mobile networks, although the
switch-blocks of all three sequence is more complex and
exchanges. The charging for additional types of messages are
the call ceases and the call required.
record is completed by Fig 3.14 gives a simplified
exchange A’s control system. representation of the delivery
x. Finally, return ‘release guard’ mechanism and the messages.
Network Signaling and Control
135
A ‘flag’, indicates the
front and back end of
the SU.
Between the flags
there are specified
fields, allocated to
specific functions,
although for
simplicity only the
main fields are
shown.
The first is the check
sum, a 16-bit binary
Fig 3.14 SS7 message and signal unit number. Examination
format of this checksum at
the distant end of the
SS7 signaling link
Network Signaling and Control
136
Next is the signaling The final two fields are used to carry
information field, that is, the forward and backward sequence
numbers.
the actual message to be
These are used to count and identify
sent. the sequence the SUs sent in each
This field may vary in length up direction so that retransmissions of
to a maximum of 272 bytes, specific SUs can be requested and later
depending on the nature of the placed in the correct sequence upon
receipt.
signaling information being
sent. Each type of message will have a
The next field is used to different format depending on the
nature of the signaling information to
indicate which of the be sent
portfolio of messages is
being used.
Since the size may vary