Cladding Systems

Because of its versatility, durability, economic advantages and aesthetic appeal, brick veneer is
among the most commonly used facades for all types of buildings, particularly for mid-rise and
high-rise buildings, as this New York City street shows. Seen in the background in this photo is
the glass-clad Bloomberg Tower by Cesar Pelli and Associates with Schuman, Lichtenstein,
Claman and Effron. (Photo by Marshall Gerometta of Emporis)
 Cladding Systems
General
Functional
Requirements
 Cladding & facings on a Building Envelope

Cladding is the method of enclosing a building frame by

means of an envelope system spanning between a given set
of column-supports which in turn give secondary support to
windposts, cladding rails and channels. Such an intricate
support system and how it is set out and fixed is dictated by
the shape, style and load bearing properties of the final
envelope system to a building.
The term facing should not be confused with a cladding. A
facing is any finishing applied to an exterior building
envelope (such as rendering, or tiling) and relies on some
background support to retain its own dimensional &
structural stability.
Primary function of cladding as a building
envelope

The primary function of a building envelope is to

separate and protect the interior from the exterior weather
elements.

 Claddings & Facings fulfil this role by relying on any

backing material which structurally forms the main
envelope of a building.
 Cladding as an external envelope

 Cladding primarily refers to the external envelope or skin that

shelters the building frame from the elements.
 It is largely defined as non-load bearing, but must carry its own
dead load in addition to any live loads imposed and superimposed
from snow, wind as well as those induced during maintenance
episodes.
 Cladding, as a secondary element, relies on a structural
framework to which it is anchored for stability and functional
requirement .
A concrete or steel framed building may receive a secondary
framework which in turn also receives dimensional stability and
durability from a cladding system which is often encased within the
frame – acting as the main support mechanism.
 Weather tightness

One of the fundamental functions of

a building envelope is to:

Therefore it
must be
structurally
robust
 Other Functional Requirements

The envelope to a building also serves many other

functions with the principal function being to provide:
Adequate resistance to weather:

In order for any envelope to fulfil the effective exclusion of weather

& pollution, it also has to be.
¤ Robust
¤ Resilient and
¤Dimensionally stable if it is to protect the occupants of a
building and its entire frame from all vagaries of weather.
key Functional Requirements
Primary Function: keeping the weather
out:- to regulate between external &
internal environments

Rain, wind, Snow

Inside environment
Fire, Hail, Smoke

Dust, Heat, Cold,

Air, Pollutants, Light Heat
& Sound Cold
Air
Outside environment Vapour
‘shoe column connection’
Steel construction techniques
 The connection between the column and the beam
and or to the pad is the point at which the most
excessive bending moments are experienced. This is
because at elbow-point contact with the ground, the
column is in compression.

 The following are animated examples of column

connection. First the construction starts with
establishing a stable moment resisting frame with
floors capable of transferring loads induced from
around the perimeter of the building.
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=zzCr6XI9QAg&feature=related
 ‘Cladding support systems’
Wind posts, shelf angles and strut
supports
● In order to perform well, a cladding
requires an intricate support system.
The manner in which the support
system is set out and fixed is dictated
by the shape, style and load bearing
properties of the final envelope. Units of
construction or assemblies are connected
to each other with the view to maximising
restraint to induced loading ..see shock
isokorb
 ‘Cladding support systems’
Wind posts, shelf angles and strut
supports

The set out starts

by interspaced
columns which
receive sheeting or
cladding rails.
The set out starts by interspaced columns which
receive sheeting/cladding rails. The rails can come in
all manner of shapes relative to type of cladding but
are usually restrained by ties and braces to minimise
buckling and dimensional instability within the surface
area of a cladding….remember the ‘Rolf’ analogy?
 Cladding rail & column connection
Steel construction techniques
Sheeting or
cladding rails

Columns and wind posts are set out and

interspaced to receive sheeting rails. The rails
offer horizontal support to cladding but are
Columns or
usually restrained by ties and braces to windposts
minimise buckling in the final cladding Kingspan (2011)
 ‘Column (stanchion connection)’ &
cladding rail and base cleat connections
Columns &
cladding rail
connection detail

windpost base
connection detail
 ‘Eaves columns’
External eaves cladding rails showing
corner connection with beam

When columns and wind posts

and sheeting rails are
interspaced at eaves, the
preoccupation is not only to offer
horizontal support to cladding
but that they are effectively
restrained to minimise buckling
due to higher induced wind and
lateral movements
at eaves (the highest point in a
wall/roof junction)
Diagonal tie restraint between columns and windposts

When columns and wind posts are interspaced to receive sheeting rails, the
preoccupation is not only to offer horizontal support to cladding but are
further restrained to minimise buckling in the final cladding but also because
noticeably the level of attention given to positions near the eaves of a steel
frame increases due to higher induced wind and lateral movements
 Column & diagonal tie restraint junction

Adjustable diagonal
wires

Given the exposure to wind loading and the flexural

movement expected in a steel frame. Keeping lateral
movement to a minimum through diagonal restraints is
critical to the long term structural performance and
Kingspan (2011) durability of any cladding system Kingspan (2011)
 Bracing for lateral support within cladding
systems

Vertical diagonal and

horizontal supports
between cladding rails

Vertical supports Adjustable diagonal

between cladding rails wires

Given the exposure to wind loading and the flexural

movement expected in a steel frame. Keeping lateral
movement to a minimum through diagonal restraints and
vertical ties is critical to the long term structural
Kingspan (2011) performance and durability of any cladding system
Lateral framing and support around Door
openings
wind post or
mullion

Doubling of scale (size) of wind post or mullion

between cladding rails in areas near openings in
addition to a diagonal and horizontal support offer
a rigid frame for final cladding
 ‘Eaves column detail showing relevant
construction elements
In areas that are over exposed such as a parapet wall
or upstand, additional diagonal and horizontal support
offers a rigid frame for final wall & roof cladding

Kingspan (2011)
Insulated steel profiled sheets finished with a final
traditional cement tiling pattern

In areas that are over

exposed such as a
parapet wall or upstand,
additional diagonal and
horizontal support and
detailing to the coping Insulation &
and eaves cavity tray steel
contribute to the weather profiled
tightness, structural roofing
robustness and therefore sheets
long term performance of
Eaves cavity
steel frame, and the final
tray to
wall & roof cladding
prevent
Brick cladding finished moisture
with a parapet wall ingress
capped with a concrete Insulated
coping boundary wall
Kingspan (2011) guttering
 Wall & roof detail

Support in the frame should be detailed to offer a robust

assembly that minimise lateral restraint. Notice the eaves beam
and haunch at the column and rafter junction
 ‘Eaves Beams’ & stanchion
Bracket Connection External Gutter

Support in the frame should be detailed to offer a robust

assembly that minimise lateral restraint. Notice the eaves beam
and haunch at the column and rafter junction Kingspan (2011)
 ‘Eaves Beams’ & steel parapet wall
junction

Support in the frame should be detailed to offer a robust

assembly that minimise lateral restraint. Notice the eaves beam
and haunch at the column and rafter junctionKingspan (2011)
Kingspan (2011)
 Movement & deviations in cladding
Systems
In addition to the inaccuracies and tolerances, almost all of the
elements of a building will be subject to some form of
movement over their lifetime. Such Movements can be
caused by:
 Changes in temperature.
 Changes in moisture content.
 Deflection of the structure.
 Differential settlement.

If these issues are not considered, they can have a detrimental

effect on the resilience & durability of fixings and joints, thus
influencing the watertightness and safety of any cladding
system.
 Mechanism of water penetration into
exterior claddings

The mechanisms with which water can

penetrate external cladding include:
 Kinetic energy mechanism
 Surface tension mechanism
 Gravity mechanism
 Capillarity mechanism
 Wind pressure mechanism
 Water penetration through Surface
Tension
outside

Surface tension – water adheres to and

move across the surface of a flat horizontal
cladding by means of surface tension.

inside
This method of leakage can be defeated by
providing ‘drip’ edges or ‘throating’
along the leading edges of panel joints
Surface Tension
Water penetration through Kinetic Energy

Kinetic Energy– This is when the wind outside

has imparted the water droplets with
sufficient energy to pass through an
unsealed joint. Even small joints can still
leak in this way as water drops impact
around the joint on the surface of the
cladding; some small part of that drop will inside
be driven inwards.
Kinetic mechanism does not account for
major leakage with cladding, and the Kinetic Energy
remedy is relatively simple. An ‘upstand’
or ‘baffle’ can be included in the cladding
backing support frame to defeat this type
of leakage
 Water penetration through Capillarity

¤ Capillarity – this mechanism causes

water to be drawn into narrow joints,
which may not be sealed or where the outside
sealing is incomplete.
¤ The water may just lodge within the
joint held by surface tension, or be forced
through the joint by a build up of water
behind it.
¤ The main form of remedy for this
mechanism is built-in cavities within the inside
joint to act as anti-capillary grooves.
Capillarity
 Water penetration through Gravity

outside
¤ Gravity – water can leak into the
building if the joints are not carefully
designed and the situation arises where the
joints slopes downwards into the cavity.
¤ The Care in design and construction of
joints can remedy this problem.

inside

Gravity
 Water penetration through air pressure
Differential
outside
¤ Wind pressure: This is caused when
the cladding has an open joint system and
a poorly detailed and constructed inner
seal.
¤ In the ideal situation, the external
pressure is balanced by a ‘captive’ air
pocket, no extra air can be forced into this
cavity by the wind as it has no where to inside
go. Thus no water can be blown into the
cavity and a leak established.
¤The obvious method of guarding against
Air pressure
this is to ensure that the inner seal is differential
properly formed.
 Water penetration through Air pressure
Capillarity

Pressure assisted capillarity

occurs when systems does not
equilibrate between the
external pressure and that
which is generated behind the
cladding. Solution is to include
a ‘captive’ air pocket, so no
extra air can be forced into this
cavity by the wind as it has no
where to go.
Pressure assisted capillarity
Pressure equalisation means a zero air pressure differential at all times across the
rainscreen, resulting in a complete elimination of the driving force for pressure-induced
water penetration
 Cladding Systems
General
Functional
Requirements
 Masonry Cladding Systems
The systems available can essentially be split into the following categories:

¤ Pre-cast concrete cladding

¤ Rainscreen cladding
¤ Brick & masonry cladding
¤ Metal cladding
¤ Glazed wall systems
¤ Composite Fibre Cladding
 Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP)

 Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP)

 Glass Reinforced Cement (GRC) Systems
Unlike the Fibre Reinforced Plastic-FRP, GRP and GRC systems are little used
today mainly because of concerns over the weather-ability of these products
 Metal Wall Cladding Systems
The main advantages of metal wall claddings are:
 They can be rapidly erected or dismantled

 They can be easily handled on site

 Lightweight nature means that less structure and foundations are

required

 Panels can be renewed easily.

The main disadvantages of metal wall claddings are:

¤ They have a low thermal capacity, they are lightweight, and have
poor acoustic performance.

¤ Unable to support dead or live loads.

¤ Lack of resistance to impact damage.

¤ Poor design or poor workmanship may lead to problems with

interstitial condensation.

¤ Not fire resistant unless they incorporate a core of fire resistant

Aluminium/steel Backing – Aluminium panels are shaped to fit
the project perfectly, and to interlock with each other, before
being mounted to the surface using runner clips. (ext. cladding)
Rain-screen Façade Cladding Systems rely
on a secondary water drainage defence
 Secondary defence mechanism

Failure of an outer seal in a face sealed envelope always allows

water to leak into the building. Envelopes built on the principle of
secondary defence and properly drained are far more robust than
face sealed constructions.
 Rain screen Façade Cladding

A rainscreen façade is a cladding

applied either during primary
construction or as an over
cladding to an existing structure.

It consists of an outer weather-

resistant decorative skin fixed to
an underlying background frame
or structure laid as a supporting
grid, which maintains a ventilated
and drained cavity between the
façade and the structure.
 Rain screen Façade Cladding

Metal Composite Materials (MCM)

are widely used to manufacture
rainscreen cladding systems.

MCMs consist of two thin skins of

aluminium or other metals such as
copper, zinc and stainless steel (e.g the
system on Broadcasting Place building)
are continuously bonded under tension
to either side of a thermoplastic or
mineral core.
 Rain screen Façade Cladding

This hook-on pressure equalising

façade system comprises a series
of panels that hook onto a
supporting frame behind. It comes
designed to be filled with
insulation and a vapour Control
Layer –VCL on either side of the
insulation to maximise thermal
ambience.

They can be arranged in panels of

between four to six within a full
floor storey height.
A hook-on panel
 Rain-screen Façade Cladding Systems

Pressure equalised systems facilitate

rapid, trouble free installation. This
non-sequential system comprises a
series of insulated composite panels
that are hung from a background
support frame (e.g. Rusty Bucket)

All panels can be independently

removed and replaced without
disrupting the rest of the façade so if
an individual panel is damaged during
the build, or even years after, that
panel can easily be replaced Pressure equalised
hook-on panel
 Rain-screen Façade Cladding Systems
Ventilated rainscreen façades are not
normally sealed and a ventilation
cavity of at least 25mm is allowed
immediately behind the cladding
panel.

A ventilated rainscreen
incorporating insulation allows the
building fabric to breathe without
risk of interstitial condensation or
structural decay.

External wall insulation used in this

way is superior in performance as it
eliminates the condensation risks
A ventilated panel
associated with internal or cavity
 Rain-screen Façade Cladding Systems

Spandrel panels are used in place of

glazing units in curtain wall systems
where it is necessary to hide the edges of
floor slabs, ceiling details, insulation,
and other building elements that would
ruin the aesthetic of the curtain wall if
they were visible.

The spandrel panel is required to match

or contrast with the glazed area and
offers the opportunity to enhance the
visual impact of the curtain wall or
glazing
Spandrel panel
 Rain-screen Façade Cladding Systems

Linear rainspan and support bracket showing how the panels can be
encased in a frame ready to be fixed to a background frame.
 Strong back cladding

Strong back cladding have a sub frame that supports the cladding
panels.
¤The cladding units are normally storey height and 6m to 9m
wide.
¤ They are fixed to the edge of floors slabs or edge beams or
relative to the design fixed directly to columns
¤ The support frame is usually constructed from either hot rolled
or cold rolled steel, coated steel or stainless steel.
 Composite Cladding Systems

Reinforced Plastic is the generic term used to describe specific

plastic materials reinforced with high strength fibres of polyester
or plastic in composite.
¤ Although GRP remains the most overused term, the development
and utilisation of fibres other than glass make FRP (Fibre
Reinforced Plastic) a more accurate and comprehensive description.
¤ Since their development, these materials have commonly been
described as “Fibreglass” or GRP (Glass Reinforced Plastic).
¤ Within the reinforced plastics industry itself, “Composite” is the
term felt to best describe this light, durable and astonishingly
tough constructional material which can be fabricated into all
manner of products.
 Composite Cladding Systems
Fibre Reinforced Plastic, as a composite material, offers many
advantages:
¤The finishing or surface texture may be translucent, opaque or
coloured, flat or shaped, thin or thick cladding to suit varying
environment/surroundings.
¤ There is virtually no limit to the size of objects which can be
made.

Rib stiffeners
Single skin panel

Typical example of a
ribbed GRP Panel
Brick & Masonry Cladding Systems
General
Functional
Requirements
Brick & Masonry Cladding Systems

Brick and masonry cladding is

usually chosen for aesthetic
reasons.
However, in some instances, the
use of brick and / or masonry
may be a mandatory planning
requirement, such as in a
conservation areas, or city
centre locations where the
need for uniformity may be the
key driver to cladding design.
 Brick & Masonry Cladding Systems

Traditionally, solid masonry was used for external

walling in framed buildings. However, this imposed
considerable loads on the supporting frame and
the foundations.
It is also expensive and can lead to problems
associated with:
 rain penetration,
 surface flaking,
 delamination
 sulphate attacks,
 carbonation,
 inflorescence and
 associated thermal bridging problems.

Park Row House, Park Row, Leeds

 Brick & Masonry Cladding Systems

There are various angles and bracket systems used to connect brick
cladding to the background frames. They consist of:
Shelf angles - provide support using a simple folded plate angle.
Expensive when used on large cavities and suffer from cold bridging
problems.

Shelf angle

Expansion Joint provided

at floor to designate
story height brick panel
for structural movement
 Brick & Masonry Cladding Systems
Individual brackets - provide the most economic method of brickwork
support.

Bracket /angle systems - combine the shelf angle with individual

brackets. The key benefit is that the angle is not required to span the full
width of the cavity. Expansion Joint provided
Anchor bracket
bolted into at floor to designate
channel itself story height brick panel
encased into for structural movement
concrete

Brick cladding
supported
Dovetailed profile between angle
metal deck Dripped Shelf angle Shelf
as cavity tie gives
vertical support
between floor levels
 Brick cladding to a timber frame
Support to
brick
cladding over
openings in a
timber frame
system
Breather
Vapour membrane
Control layer

Metal lintel
profile
embedded in
mortar to give
vertical
support to
brick over
Oriented Strand door or
board or exterior window
ply board opening
Support to brick
cladding over
openings in a
composite frame
system

Continuous solid
infill steel lintel
 Brick & Masonry Cladding Systems

In addition to support fixings, restraint fixings are also used to ensure that the
cladding has a flush vertical finish and to restrain it in position against both
horizontal and vertical movement caused by lateral loads.
vertical restraint

Vertical restraint is provided by

fishtailed or flat anchors that are
bedded into the brickwork outer leaf fixed
at the same interval as wall ties.

Horizontal restraint is provided by

fitting the anchors into cast-in channels in
beams or floor slabs.
Horizontal
restraint

Restraint fixing for brickwork

[Source: Emmitt & Gorse, 2006]
 Brick & Masonry Cladding Systems

The main advantages of brick and masonry cladding are:

 Strength and stability.
 Visual appeal - familiar traditional material which is available in a
variety of colours and textures.
 Durable and weathers well.
 Economic.
 Relatively high thermal mass.

Disadvantages of brick and masonry cladding include :

 Not the most efficient method.
 Not the quickest method.
 Weather can have a serious effect on the progress of masonry
cladding.
 Workmanship is important for masonry - bricklaying and stone fixing
are skilled crafts.
 Requires movement joints within square meters of brick courses (8
courses before movement/expansion gaps are Inserted.
 Examples of Brick & Masonry
Cladding Systems… continued

Yorkshire Bank,
Leeds

Halifax
building,
Leeds

Pictures curtsey of Dr. David Johnson

Precast Cladding Systems
General
Functional
Requirements
 Pre-cast Cladding Systems
Pre-cast concrete cladding units were extensively used in the 1950s and
1960s and are generally storey height or column spacing wide and
act as spandrel or undercill units.
They are attached to the structural frame as a self-supporting facing
element.

Pictures curtsey of Dr. David Johnson

 Precast Concrete Cladding
 Precast concrete cladding offers a cost-effective
means of providing a robust, high-quality facade, with
a great variety of durable textures, colours and
patterns, including a range of facing materials such
as stone and brick. It is also known as architectural
precast concrete cladding
 Precast concrete cladding can be installed quickly on
site which, with just-in-time delivery, offers significant
construction and programme benefits. Other benefits
include quality-controlled and pre-determined
surfaces, low waste and material efficiency and high
thermal performance.
 Advantages of Pre-cast Concrete Cladding

 Off-site production: providing resource efficiency

through low-waste production and installation, quality
control and fast construction programmes not
affected by weather or labour shortages.
 Skilled production and installation: Panels are
produced by skilled craftsmen in purpose-built
factories, and installed by teams of specialists who
have been trained in their safe handling and fixing.
 Quality control: Each stage of manufacture is
inspected in accordance with an independently-
certified quality system. Finish and dimensional
accuracy are verified prior to delivery.
 Fast construction programmes:
Manufacture takes place while the foundation and
frame construction proceeds, enabling them to be
delivered and installed on a just-in-time basis.
Panels can be delivered with windows and insulation
fitted in the factory, thus further accelerating the
work of following trades. Early enclosure of dry
envelope enables follow-on trades to start sooner.
 Range of unique, aesthetic options: A wide range
of finishes, textures, patterns and forms are
achievable.
 Low waste and material efficiency: Negligible
waste is produced during production of units as they
are fully engineered in the factory. Little or no
packaging is required for delivery and installation.
 Good acoustic insulation: Concrete provides excellent
inherent acoustic insulation, making concrete cladding
particularly useful in busy urban areas or noisy
environments.
 Low maintenance: Concrete cladding typically requires
little maintenance compared to other lighter-weight
cladding solutions, providing lifecycle cost benefits.
 Fire resistance and no spread of flame: Concrete
cladding offers excellent inherent resistance to fire,
protecting occupants from the effect of external fires.
 Long-life and adaptability: Concrete cladding creates
durable facades with a long usable life. They can also be
simply dismantled with panels potentially being
refurbished for further use or crushed to provide recycled
aggregate and scrap steel.
 Precast Cladding Systems

Pre-cast concrete cladding units are reinforced

with a cage and mesh. The cage reinforces the
vertical stiffening and horizontal support ribs

The units are reinforced for:

¤ Added strength and rigidity in handling.
¤ Lifting and support.
¤ Fixing.
¤ Easy of transportation
¤ To resist lateral wind pressures.
This is achieved by joining pre-cast concrete
units using face sealed joints or open
drained joints

Face sealed joints consist of a sealant that is

applied over a backing strip of closed cell
polyethylene. The purpose of the backing strip
is to ensure the correct depth of the sealant.
 Precast Cladding Systems

Slotted holes to allow for

vertical and horizontal
movement
Precast Cladding Systems

Anchorage to
frame provided
by angle steel
plates used to
bolt the
cladding to the
underside of
the floor
 Precast Cladding Systems

Mechanism for lateral restraint

Horizontal &
vertical
restraint fixing
of bolts &
metal
fasteners
 Precast Cladding Systems
Allowance for movement

Vertical movement

Horizontal
movement
 Examples of Concrete cladded Buildings in Leeds

Merrion Centre Car Park, Leeds Merrion House, Leeds

Park Row, Leeds Park Row, Leeds Pictures curtsey of Dr. David Johnson
 Glazed Cladding Systems

General
Functional
Requirements
 Glazed Cladding Systems
¤ The stick system is the traditional form of glass
walling.

It consists of an extruded aluminium carrier system that is

assembled and fixed to the structure on site. The carrier
system.

Comprises continuous mullions and short discontinuous

transoms set to a rectangular grid into which panes of glass are
fitted and secured.

The extruded aluminium carrier system is fixed to the structure

by angle cleats, which are bolted together through the mullions
and bolted to the structure at each floor level.
 Glazed Cladding Systems

Various lattice frame and secondary rigging systems are

available for stability and effect.

Star fixing
plates/nodes
help to secure
the edge of four
sheets of glass.

Tubular steel
frame as
cantilever
support to the
suspended
glazing.

Suspended glazing system [Source: Emmitt & Gorse, 2006]

 Glazed Cladding Systems- aluminium framing
panels

In this system complete

aluminium framing panels
with glazing are fabricated
as units. The glazed panels
are finished flash using
silicone sealed strips which
are water tight. Behind the
glazing units is a secondary
drainage system to allow any
water breachng the primary
system to be drained away
from the inside of the
building
Glazed Systems- structural glazing with silicone
sealed joint
Structural glazing systems use a narrow strip of
silicone to bond the glazing system to a metal frame.

The result is a flush external glass

face that is interrupted only by very
narrow open joint or a silicone
sealed joint between the panes of
glass.
The silicone seals holds the glazing
system firmly in place and transfers
whole or part of the weight of the
glazing system to the frame along
with any wind forces acting on the
glazing system.
Structural glazing with silicone sealed joint
[Source: Emmitt & Gorse, 2006]
 Glazed Cladding Systems
Structural glazing with an open joint system use a
narrow strip of silicone to bond the glazing system
to a metal frame.

Structural glazing with open joint

[Source: Emmitt & Gorse, 2010]
 Glazed Cladding Systems
Suspended Non-Framed Systems

¤ Suspended frameless
glazing systems use
stainless steel bolts which
are secured to stainless steel
brackets or discs that are
either fixed to glass fins or to
an independent frame to
support large panes of
glass.

¤ Plastic washers are used to

provide bearing for bolts and
to prevent damage to the Bolt support for suspended glazing
[Source: Emmitt & Gorse, 2006]
glass itself
 Glazed Cladding Systems
Suspended Non-Framed Systems

¤ The system of support for

suspended non frame glazing
systems should be capable of
supporting each glass pane and
provide a unit restraint against
wind loading.

Two systems of support are used :

¤ Glass fins that are fixed

internally at right angles to the
glazing and

¤ Angle plates that are bolted to

the glazing.
 References
 Bank, C, L (2010) Composites for Construction: Structural Design with FRP materials, New
Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Incorporation
 Bungale, S, T (1998) Steel, Concrete, and composite Design of Tall Buildings, 2 nd ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill
 Button, D., Colvin, J., Cunliffe, J., Jackson, K, C., Lightfoot, G., Owen, P., Pye, B., and Waldron, B
(1994) Glass in Buildings: A guide to Modern Architectural Glass Performance. Edited by
Button, D and Pye, B. Oxford: Pilkington Glass Limited& Butterworth Architecture
 Bungale, S, T (1988) Structural Analysis and Design of Tall Buildings. New York: McGraw-Hill
 Chew, Y, M (2006) Construction Technology for Tall Buildings, 2nd ed. Singapore: World
Scientific
 Corus (2006) Building in Steel, Vol. 3 London: Corus Construction DVDS.
 CWCT (2010) Centre for Window and Cladding Technology [Internet] available from<
http://www.cwct.co.uk/> (accessed: 6/11/10)
 Emmitt, S and Gorse, A, C (2010) Barry’s Advanced Construction of Buildings, 2 nd Ed. Oxford:
Wiley-Blackwell
 Garber, G (2006) Design and Construction of Concrete Floors 2nd Ed. Oxford: Elsevier-
Butterworth-Heinemann
 Great Buildings (2010) The Hancock place and views, [Internet] Available from<
http://www.greatbuildings.com/cgi-bin/building_street_views.cgi?Hancock_Place> (Accessed
10.11.10)
 Hassoun, M. Nadimand Al-Manaseer, A (2008) Structural Concrete: Theory and Design, 4thEd.
New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Incorporation
 Nawy, G, E (2006)Reinforced Concrete: A fundamental Approach –IRC-6th ed. London: Pearson-
Prentice
 Bibliography for wider reading

 Asdwestock (2010) Castellated Beams [Internet] available from

<http://www.asdwestok.co.uk/Cellular+USFB/Cellular%20Beams.html> [Accessed
4/11/10]
 Mehta, M, Scarborough, W, and Armpriest, D (2009) Building Construction: Principles
Materials, and Systems: Building Code and Sustainability Update. New York: Pearson
Education.
 McKenzie, W.M.C (2004) Design of Structural Elements, 2nd Ed. Hampshire: Palgrave
Macmillan.