Dar es salaam Maritime Institute

Module Name: Material Technology

Lecturer Name : Eng M. Mkwande
Engineering Department
Lecture: 02

Topic : Production process of iron and steel

Introduction
• Materials technology and metallurgy is the study of
engineering materials and their applications in the
engineering field.
• Materials Technology or materials science examines the
structure and properties of a material, how it's made, and
how it can be used
• The primary function of an engineering material is to
withstand applied loading without breaking and without
exhibiting excessive deflection.
Qn. Why Study Materials technology ?

Every engineer must study and understand the concepts of

Materials Science and Engineering.
This enables the engineer.
To select a material for a given use based on considerations
of cost and performance.
To understand the limits of materials and the change of their
properties with use.
To be able to create a new material that will have some
desirable properties.
To be able to use the material for different application.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
• These engineering materials include metals, ceramics,
organics, composites, and semiconductors. The study
involves the composition of materials their production
processes, mechanical and physical properties.
Metal : a solid material which is typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, and
ductile, with good electrical and thermal conductivity (e.g. iron, gold, silver, and
aluminum, and alloys such as steel).

• Metals • Polymers
• Thermostatic Polymer
• Ferrous alloys • Thermosetting Polymers
• Carbon Steel • Elastomers
• Low-Alloy Steel • Ceramics
• Stainless steel • Glass
• Cements
• Cast Iron
• Clay Products
• Aluminium Alloys • Refractories
• Nickel Alloys • Abrasives
• Composite
• Copper Alloys
• Particulate Composite
• Titanium Alloys • Fibrous Composite
1. METALS
Materials in this group are composed of one or more
metallic elements (such as iron, aluminum, copper,
titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic
elements (for example, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen)
Here are common characteristics of metal ;
• High Conductivity
• Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity due to the
presence of free-moving electrons.
• Luster
• Metals have a shiny appearance when polished.
• Malleability
• Metals can be hammered or rolled into thin sheets without breaking.
• Ductility
• Metals can be stretched into wires.
• High Density
• Metals typically have high density and are heavy for their size.
• High Melting and Boiling Points
• Most metals have high melting and boiling points.

• Strength and Toughness

• Metals are strong and can withstand significant stress or strain without
breaking.
• Sonority
• Metals produce a ringing sound when struck.
• Corrosion Resistance (Varies)
• Some metals, such as gold and platinum, resist corrosion, while others,
like iron, may rust.
• Solid at Room Temperature
• Most metals are solid at room temperature, except mercury, which is
liquid.
• Alloy Formation
• Metals can mix with other metals or nonmetals to form alloys, improving
their properties.
2. CERAMICS
Ceramics are non-metallic, inorganic materials that are manufactured
through a process of shaping and hardening natural or synthetic
compounds at high temperatures. They are composed of compounds
such as oxides, carbides, nitrides, and silicates.
Types of Ceramics:
• Traditional Ceramics:
• Made from naturally occurring raw materials like clay and quartz.
• Examples:
• Pottery
• Tiles
• Bricks
• Porcelain
Advanced Ceramics (Engineering
Ceramics)
• Made using refined raw materials for specialized applications.
• Examples:
• Alumina (Al₂O₃)
• Silicon carbide (SiC)
• Zirconia (ZrO₂)
Here are the common characteristics of
ceramics:
• Brittle Nature
• Ceramics are hard but brittle, meaning they can crack or break under
tensile stress.
• High Hardness
• Ceramics are highly resistant to scratching and wear.
• High Melting Points
• Most ceramics have very high melting points, making them heat-
resistant.
• Low Thermal and Electrical Conductivity
• Ceramics are typically good insulators of heat and electricity.
• Corrosion and Chemical Resistance
Cont....
• Ceramics are highly resistant to corrosion and chemical reactions.
• Low Density
• Compared to metals, many ceramics have relatively low density.
• Variety of Properties
• Ceramics can be engineered to exhibit specific properties, such as
piezoelectricity, magnetism, or superconductivity.
• Dimensional Stability
• Ceramics retain their shape and size under high temperatures and
pressures.
• High Compressive Strength
• While ceramics are weak in tension, they have high compressive
strength.
• Non-Magnetic
• Ceramics are generally non-magnetic.
Common Applications:
• Household Items: Dishes, tiles, and pottery.
• Construction Materials: Bricks, cement, and glass.
• Industrial Uses: Bearings, cutting tools, and engine
components.
• Electronic Devices: Capacitors, insulators, and
superconductors.
• Medical Applications: Dental implants, bone grafts, and
prosthetics.
Ceramic cont....
Advantages of Ceramics:
• Excellent resistance to heat and corrosion.
• Durable and wear-resistant.
• Lightweight compared to metals.
• Good insulators of electricity and heat.

Disadvantages of Ceramics:
• Brittle and prone to cracking under tension.
• Difficult to machine and process after hardening.
• Limited ductility and plastic deformation.
Examples of Ceramic Materials:
• Oxides:
• Alumina (Al₂O₃): Used in cutting tools and insulators.
• Zirconia (ZrO₂): Used in dental implants and fuel cells.
• Carbides:
• Silicon carbide (SiC): Used in high-temperature
applications.
• Nitrides:
• Silicon nitride (Si₃N₄): Used in ball bearings and turbine
blades.
• Silicates:
• Mullite: Used in kiln linings and refractories.
3. POLYMERS/PLASTICS
• Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many
of them are organic compounds that are chemically based on
carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements (0,N, and Si).
Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often
chain-like in nature that has a backbone of carbon atoms. Some
of the common and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE),
nylon, polyvinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene
(PS), and silicone rubber.
• These materials typically have low densities , whereas their
mechanical characteristics are generally dissimilar to the
metallic and ceramic materials-they are not as stiff nor as strong
as these other material types However, on the basis of their low
densities, many times their stiffnesses and strengths on a per
mass basis are comparable to the metals and
• ceramics. In addition, many of the polymers are extremely ductile
and pliable (i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed into
complex shapes. In general, they are relatively inert chemically and
unreactive in a large number of environments. One major drawback
to the polymers is their tendency to soften and/or decompose at
modest temperatures, which, in some instances, limits their use.
Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities and are
nonmagnetic. Characteristics are summarized below as
• Soft
• Ductile
• C. low strength
• low density
• Thermal & electrical insulators
• Optically translucent or transparent. E.g. Plastics rubber
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
• A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials,
which come from the categories discussed above i.e metals,
ceramics, and polymers. =The design goal of a composite is to
achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by
any single material, and also to incorporate the best
characteristics of each of the component materials.
• A large number of composite types exist that are represented
by different Combinations of metals, ceramics, and polymers.
Furthermore, some naturally occurring materials are also
considered to be composites-for example, wood
MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND QUALITIES
Properties are the way the material responds to the environment and
external forces.
• Physical Properties: Density, Melting Point, Hardness.
• Mechanical Properties: Response to mechanical force( yield, tensile,
compressive and torsional strength, Ductility, Fatigue Strength, Fracture,
Toughness).
• Manufacturing Properties: Ability to be shaped by Moulding, Casting,
Plastic Deformation, Powder processing, Machining, Ability to be joined
by adhesives, Welding etc
• Chemical Properties: Resistance to oxidation, corrosion, solvents and
environmental factors.
• Electrical and Magnetic Properties: Response to electrical and magnetic
fields, conductivity etc
• Thermal Properties: related to transmission of heat and heat capacity.
• Optical Properties: Include absorption, transmission and scattering of
light.
• Economic Properties: Raw material and processing costs, availability.
TERMINOLOGIES TO KNOW
• Alloy: Metallic material consisting a mixture of two or more
metals/ or A mixture of metallic and non-metallic.
• Deformation: Loss of original figure and shape without falling
apart (rapture).
• Ductility: Ability of a material to sustain large deformation
without fracture.
• Fatigue: Failure of material caused by repeated load (cyclic
loading/alternating stresses, vibrations).
• Hardness: Resistance of surface of a material to penetration,
indentation, scratches.
Cont.....
• Toughness: Ability of a material to be worked hammered or
shaped under pressure or blows without falling/breaking.
• Brittleness: Ability of the material to fracture (fail) with
minimum deformation.
• Stress: The ratio of applied force/cross sectional area upon
which it acts.
• Strain: Deformation brought about by stress; AL/L
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: Minimum stress to cause failure
under standard conditions.
MATERIALS CLASSIFICATION
Common engineering materials are normally classified as
• METALS (cast iron , steel and wrought iron).
• NON METALS
• Light metal group such as aluminum and its alloys, magnesium
and manganese alloys.
• Copper based alloys such as brass (Cu-Zn), bronze (Cu-Sn).
• White metal group such as nickel, silver, white bearing metals
eg.SnSb7Cu3, Sn6OSID1 1Pb, zinc
Iron
Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic
number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first
transition and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass,
the most common element on the earth right in front of
oxygen (32.1% and 30.1%, respectively), forming much of
Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most
common element in the Earth’s crust.
 Uses of Iron
 90% of all metal that is refined today is iron. Most is used.
 Iron is the most useful metal of all. It is strong,
abundant, and easy to work with, especially when
refined into various types of steel.
• Pig iron is used in making pipes, stoves, radiators, railings,
manhole covers and drain pipes.
• Steel is used in the construction of buildings, machinery,
transmission cables and T.V. towers and in making alloys.
• Wrought iron is used in making springs, anchors and
electromagnets.
• Mild steel is used to manufacture nuts, bolts, etc.
• Hard steel is used to make tools.
Iron making process
What is iron ore?
• Iron ore is the source of primary iron for the world's iron and steel
industries. It is therefore essential for the production of iron/steel,
which in turn is essential to maintain a strong industrial base.
• Iron ore is mined in about 50 countries.

Iron ores
• are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can be economically
extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxide and vary in color
from dark grey, bright yellow, or deep purple to rusty red.
 Continue…..

IRON ORE
• What is the main source of iron ore?
Iron ore are the chief raw material used in the
manufacture of iron and steel .

• China, Brazil, Australia, Russia, and Ukraine are the

five biggest producers of iron ore, but significant
amounts are also mined in India, the United States,
Canada, and Kazakhstan. Together, these nine
countries produce 80 percent of the world's iron ore.
Types of iron ore
There are four main types of iron ore deposit
• Massive hematite: Heavy and relatively hard oxide mineral, ferric
oxide (Fe2O3), that constitutes the most important iron ore because of its
high iron content (70% and its abundance).
• Limonite or Bog-iron ore (2Fe2O3·3H2O): A high grade-grade
brown ore containing water(Hydrated iron oxide) which must be removed
before the ore can be shipped to steel mills .
• Magnetite: a rich gray to black magnetic ore containing only about
20% to 30% of iron with the chemical formula Fe2+Fe3+2O4. It is one of
the oxide of iron and is ferromagnetic; it is attracted to a magnet and can
be magnetized to become a permanent magnet itself.
• Ironstone: is a sedimentary rock, either deposited directly as a
ferruginous sediment or created by chemical replacement, that
contains a substantial proportion of an iron ore compound from
which iron (Fe) can be smelted commercially.
 Properties of iron ore
• Lustrous: an optical property of metals. Metals have the quality of reflecting
light from their surface. This property of metal is known as lustrous. Metals are
lustrous, which means they have a shiny surface. Some non-metals like carbon
in the form of diamond are also lustrous in nature.

• Ductile: ductility is the property of metal associated with the ability to be

hammered thin or stretched into wire without breaking.

• Malleable: Malleability is the physical property of a solid to bend or be

hammered into another shape without breaking. If malleable, a material
may be flattened into a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. Examples of
malleable metals are gold, silver, aluminum, copper etc.
 Hematite
Ironstone

Magnetite
Limonite or Bog-iron ore
 Other raw materials used in extraction of
iron
Coke
 is a grey, hard, and porous coal-
based fuel with a high carbon
content and few Impurities ,
made by heating coal or oil in
the absence of air a destructive
distillation process.
 It is an important industrial
product, used mainly in iron ore Coke
smelting, but also as a fuel in
stoves and forges when air
pollution is a concerned
 Other raw materials used
Limestone(CaCO3).
 is a sedimentary rock
composed mainly of
skeletal fragments of
marine organisms such as
coral and forams.
 Its major materials are
the minerals calcite and
aragonite, which are
different crystals forms of
calcium carbonates
(CaCO3).
Iron making process/extraction of
iron
• Iron is extracted from iron ore in a huge
container called a blast furnace. Iron ores such
as hematite contain iron(III) oxide, Fe 2O 3. The
oxygen must be removed from the iron(III) oxide
in order to leave the iron behind. Reactions in
which oxygen is removed are called reduction
reactions.
 Iron making process/extraction of iron

Iron ore are not usually fed direct into the blast furnace, they are
prepared first, the preparation may consist of some form of
concentrating process:
• Washing out the earth matters
• Crushing : Ore crushing and handling means the process
whereby dry taconite ore is crushed and screened. Grinding is
carried out to free the different minerals contained in the ore,
to provide the appropriate size and surface area for the
enrichment process or the intended use.
 cont...
• Crushing is the process of size reduction of ore. Size reduction
process begins with usage of explosives at the area for production of
ore.
• In later stages, the size reduction process performed with crushers
before grinding in mills is called "crushing". Although there is no limit
set, the downsizing process over 3 mm is considered as "crushing"
and the ones below 3 mm are considered "grinding". Even though the
ore is reduced below 3 mm with conical and some impact crushers,
this process is called crushing.
Screening process
What is iron ore screening process?
• Iron ore screening process refers to the process of
separating different sized iron ore particles by screening.
This is usually done using a vibrating screen or a series of
vibrating screens. The screening process typically follows
after the crushing and grinding of the iron ore.
• The purpose of iron ore screening is to separate the larger
particles of iron ore from the smaller ones, which are often
too small to be efficiently processed by the downstream
equipment, such as crushers and grinding mills.
• The screening process can also remove unwanted
impurities, such as clay and organic matter, which can
reduce the quality of the final product.
 Screening Process
• During the screening process, the iron ore is fed into the vibrating
screen, which vibrates at a frequency that causes the particles to
separate according to size. The larger particles remain on the top
of the screen, while the smaller ones pass through the screen
and are collected in a chute or hopper underneath.
Note

• Screening plays a significant role in a lot of industries. It separates

the valuable minerals and materials from the waste rock, debris,
and other excessive elements that are not needed for further
processing
Extraction of Iron
The extraction of iron is the process of separating
metals from their ores. The process of extraction of
iron and their separation is followed by three major
steps
• Concentration of ore
• Extraction of iron from its concentrated ore
• Purification of iron
Smelting
Smelting is a process of applying heat to ore , to extract a base
metal. It is a form of extractive metallurgy. It is used to extract
many metals from their ores, including silver, iron, copper and
other base metals. Smelting uses heat and a chemical reducing
agent to decompose the ore, driving off other elements as gases
or slag and leaving the metal base behind. The reducing agent is
commonly a fossil fuel source of carbon, such as coke—or, in
earlier times, charcoal. The oxygen in the ore binds to carbon at
high temperatures due to the lower potential energy of the
bonds in carbon dioxide (CO2). Smelting most prominently takes
place in a blast furnace to produce pig iron , which is converted
into steel.
Why limestone is added in A furnace ?
Limestone is used to remove impurities from the blast furnace when
making iron. The impurities are mostly silicon dioxide (also known as sand).
The calcium carbonate in the limestone reacts with the silicon dioxide to
form calcium silicate (also known as slag)The main impurity found in iron
ore (i.e. the “rocky bit” that iron ore is often found mixed with) is sand, or
silicon dioxide. The calcium oxide reacts with silicon dioxide to form calcium
silicate

calcium carbonate + heat = calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

calcium oxide + silicon dioxide= calcium silicate
CaO + SiO2 = CaSiO3
Calcium silicate is also called slag. This is also tapped off at the bottom of the
furnace.
Pig iron
• Pig iron is a solid form of hot metal, obtained from iron, and it
is processed with blast furnace or electric arc furnace. Pig iron
is used as a raw material for iron steel making and most of this
material was imported
• Pig Iron is a high Fe (iron), low residual metallic material which
is used for the production of high quality iron and steel
products in a wide variety of furnaces engaged in steelmaking
What are uses of pig iron?
• Pig iron is used for steel making, foundries, alloy making, in
automotive castings and other iron based castings.
Pig iron
• Pig iron is basically an alloy of iron (Fe), carbon (C), silicon (Si),
and manganese (Mn). It also contains some percentage of
sulphur (S) and phosphorus (P) as impurity elements, along
with some titanium (Ti) and other trace elements. The C
content of pig iron is high, typically in the range of 3.5 % to
4.5%.
• With its defined and closely controlled specification and the
absence of metallic impurities, pig iron is a reliable and
consistent charge material for both the electric steelmaking as
well as the ferrous castings production. The various grades of
pig iron have specific chemical properties designed for their
end use. The pig iron also contains valuable alloying elements
and reduces the energy consumption of a melt
Properties of Pig iron
• Pig iron is hard, wear resistant, fairly fusible and very brittle.
• It is not useful directly as a material except for limited
applications. It has a low melting point as compared to steel.
Typically its hardness varies between 250 BHN(Brinell
hardness number to 450 BHN,
• tensile strength between 25 kN to 50 kN and % elongation in
the range of around 0 % and 0.5 %.
• Pig iron contains C, Si, Mn, P, S, trace metals and some gases
besides iron (Fe) which is the main constituent of the pig iron.
Commercial forms of iron
There are three major commercial form iron. They differ in their
carbon content.
• Cast iron
It contain 2-5% of carbon along with the traces of other
impurities like sulphur, phosphorous, manganese etc

• Wrought iron
Its the purest form of iron and contains carbon to the extent of
0.25%

• Steel iron
It contain 0.5 to 1.5% of carbon along with varying of other
elements
Properties of cast iron
Following are the important properties of cast iron that make it
a valuable material for engineering purposes.
• Low cost.
• Good casting characteristics.
• High compressive strength.
• Wear resistance.
• Excellent machinability.
The cast iron compressive strength is greater than tensile
strength.
• Following are the values of the ultimate strengths of cast iron.
• Tensile – 100 to 200 N/mm2
• Compressive – 400 to 100 N/mm2
• Shear – 120 N/mm2
Alloying elements which are used in it are:

• Manganese: Increases resistance to wear and abrasions

• Chromium: Increases hardenability, wear resistance, corrosion and
oxidation resistance
• Nickle: Increases tensile strength
• Tungsten: It increases hot hardness and hot strength
• Molybdenum: Increases hardenability
• Vanadium: Increases hardenability and hot hardness
• Silicon: Increases hardenability and electrical resistivity
• Aluminum: Works as deoxidizer in steel
• Titanium: Works as deoxidizer in steel
• Niobium: It reduces hardenability and increases ductility, which
results in increased impact strength
• Cobalt: It reduces hardenability and resists softening at elevated
temperatures
Advantages of Cast iron
• It has good high machinability and casting properties.
• Cast iron has good wear resistance as well as good
vibration damping.
• It can withstand greater loads and has a good degree of
resistance against corrosion.
• Cast iron has low tensile strength and elongation
properties.
• It can be given any complicated shapes and sizes without
using expensive machining operations.
• Cast iron is available at low cost and has low durability.
Disadvantages of Cast iron

• Cast iron has poor tensile strength.

• Cast iron parts are section sensitive, due to the slow
cooling of thick sections.
• The failure of its parts is sudden and total, it does not
reflect the yield point.
• When compared to steel it has poor machinability
• Cast iron has high brittleness.
Applications of Cast iron
• It is used in making pipes for carrying suitable
fluids.
• The cast iron is used for making various
machines.
• Used for making automotive parts
• To build the anchor for ships, cast iron is used.
• Cast iron is also used to make cooking appliances
such as pots and pans and utensils
White cast iron
Carbon is present here in the form of Iron carbide (Fe3C).
Its properties are
• It has High compressive strength
• It has Good hardness
• It is difficult to machine
• It has Resistance to wear
NB: Because of its lack of machinability, white irons , find
limited engineering application.
Application of White cast iron
White cast irons are used in
abrasion-resistant parts
shell liners,
• slurry pumps,
• ball mills, lifter bars,
cement mixers, pipe
fittings, flanges, crushers
and pump impellers.
 Grey Cast Iron
• It consists of Carbon – 3 to
3.5%, Silicon – 1 to 2.75%,
Manganese – 0.40 to 1%,
Phosphorus – 0.15 to 1%,
Sulphur – 0.02 to 0.15% and
the remaining is iron
• The grey color is due to the
fact that carbon is present as
free graphite. Grey cast iron
can be easily machined
because it has high
compressive strength, low
tensile strength, and no
ductility.
Gray cast iron
• A good property of grey cast iron is that free graphite in its
structure acts as a lubricant. For this reason, it is highly suitable for
parts where sliding action is desired. The grey iron castings are
broadly used for machine tool bodies, pipes and pipe fittings,
automobile cylinder blocks, and agricultural implements.

• Gray cast iron characterized by flake graphite has certain strength,

hardness, modulus of elasticity, shock absorption, wear resistance
and thermal conductivity, especially with excellent casting
performance, good cutting performance and low casting cost. So
far, it is still the most widely used cast iron in the world

• The graphite in a gray cast iron has a flake like structure which is
largely responsible for the high machinability of this metal
Properties
1. Mechanical properties
(1) Tensile strength: the tensile strength of gray cast iron is
generally 100-350 MPa, which can meet the strength
requirements of many engineering machinery parts.

(2) Compressive strength: gray cast iron has a very high

compressive strength, which is 3-4 times of its tensile
strength. It can be equivalent to steel, and is the best
choice for pressure parts (such as base).

(3) Hardness: the hardness of gray cast iron can meet the
wear-resistant requirements of general engineering
machinery parts. The higher the hardness, the better the
wear resistance.
(4) Modulus of elasticity: the modulus of elasticity of gray
cast iron is not a fixed value, but a variable. There is no
straight line in the stress-strain curve, because the
existence of graphite makes the gray cast iron produce
plastic deformation even under a small stress. The elastic
modulus of gray cast iron is related to its strength. The
higher the grade is, the greater the elastic modulus is.

2. Process performance
(1) Casting properties: (1) gray cast iron has good fluidity
and can be used to produce thin-walled and complicated
parts;
Application of gray cast iron
Grey cast iron applications
• It is used in applications where its high stiffness,
machinability, vibration dampening, high heat capacity
and high thermal conductivity are of advantage, such as
internal combustion engine cylinder blocks, flywheels,
gearbox cases, manifolds, disk brake rotors and
cookware.
Malleable Cast iron
• Malleable cast iron is essentially white cast iron which has
been modified by heat treatment. It is formed when white
cast iron is heated to around 920 deg C and then left to cool
very slowly
Malleable cast iron

• Malleable cast irons are formed via a slow annealing

heat treatment of white cast iron. This results in the
conversion of carbon, in the form of iron carbide in
white iron, to graphite, with the remaining matrix
being composed of ferrite or pearlite [1]. The
graphite is present in the form of spherical or
nodular shapes.
• Malleable cast iron good malleability and good
ductility. Due to the lower silicon content compared
to other cast irons, it exhibits good fracture
toughness at low temperature.
Application of malleable cast iron
As a result of its good tensile strength and ductility,
malleable cast iron is used for electrical fittings and
equipment, hand tools, pipe fittings, washers, brackets,
farm equipment, mining hardware, and machine parts
Wrought iron
• Is a very form of commercial iron , having a very small carbon
content. It is tough, malleable(easily forming) ductile and can
be easily welded
What Are the Properties of Iron?
Iron has many properties that make it incredibly useful in a wide range of
industries, from metallurgy to recycling.

• Ferromagnetic ability – this means that iron can form magnets or be attracted
to magnets, which means it’s easier to separate it from non ferrous materials.
• Softness – one of the most well known mechanical properties of iron is its
level of hardness. Iron is a soft metal but, combined with other components,
becomes very strong and can be used for a large number of applications and in
a variety of sectors.
• Low cost – this element is also affordable, making it invaluable for many
industries around the world.
• Malleability – iron can also deform under pressure, such as hammering,
meaning it’s easy to work with and shape.
• Dissolvable – iron dissolves in dilute acids.
• Conductivity – this element is a conductor of electricity and heat and, as
mentioned, it’s easy to magnetise as well.
Mild steel
• What constitutes a steel
• How can we affect the properties?
• What happen during the solidification of steel

• Steel is an alloy of iron, containing up to 2% of carbon (usually

up to 1%).
• Steel contains lower carbon (compared to pig iron) with other
impurities
• Steel is produced from pig iron by processes, involving
reducing the amounts of carbon, silicon and phosphorous.
Mild Iron(steel)
• Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon with a small
percentage of other metals such as nickel, chromium, aluminum,
cobalt etc
• Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing less than 2%
carbon and 1% manganese and small amounts of silicon,
phosphorus, sulphur and oxygen
• alloy, metallic substance composed of two or more elements,
as either a compound or a solution. The components of alloys
are ordinarily themselves metals which are the main substance
or the primary constituent,
• Alloys are generally made by melting the substances, mixing
them together, and then letting them cool to room temperature,
resulting in a solid material
Steel making process
Steel is produced from pig iron by processes, involving
reducing the amounts of carbon, and impurities .

The main steel making methods are

• Basic oxygen process(BOP)
• Electric-arc furnace
• Ladle refining(ladle Metallurgy, secondary refining)

Basic oxygen process (BOP), a steelmaking method in which

pure oxygen is blown into a bath of molten blast-furnace
iron and scrap. The oxygen initiates a series of intensively
exothermic (heat-releasing) reactions, including the
oxidation of such impurities as carbon, silicon, phosphorus,
and manganese.
Basic oxygen process
• BOS is the main bulk production process of refining iron
• First scrap steel is put into the vessel and then the hot metal is
added which may have been pre treated to remove elements
such as sulfur
• A lance then blows high purity oxygen onto the hot metal at
about twice the speed of sound
• The oxygen combines with impurities and this oxidation
produces heat, the temperature is controlled by the quantity
of scrap steel and also by the addition of iron ore as a coalant.
• The oxidized carbon creates carbon monoxide which can be
collected, cleaned and used as fuel
• The other oxidized impurities combine with lime that has been
added during the blow to form the slag.
Basic oxygen process
• The quantities of scrap hot metal
and other substances are
calculated to ensure correct
temperature and composition of
steel
• Refining can be assisted by
injecting argon nitrogen or
oxygen gases through the base of
the vessel and a sub lance is used
to measure a carbon and
temperature during the blow to
allow final adjustment to be
made
• During tapping alloy additions are
also made to adjust steel
composition by this stage carbon
is reduced from around 4% to
about 0.05%.
• Finally the vessel is tipped to
remove the slag for recycling
Electric-arc furnace(EAF)
• The other method of making steel is by means of the electric arc
furnace, EAF as its known the eaf process predominantly uses cold steel
scrap making it one of the world’s largest recycling process making up
to 150tones of steel in a single melt in in less than an hour
• The furnace is filled with recycled steel scrap, the roof is then swung
into place and three graphite electrode are lowered into the furnace a
powerful electric current is passed
• An arc is created and the heat generated melts the steel scrap lime and
fluorspar are added and usually oxygen are blown into the melt as a
result impurities in the metal combine to form a slag
• Steel is sampled and analyzed and once it reaches its correct
temperature and composition it is tapped off at this stage final
adjustments to precise customer specifications can be made by adding
alloying elements these furnances give very precise control over
composition and are used for producing a variety of special steel’s
including alloy steels and stainless steels
Primary steelmaking process
• Primary steelmaking involves the use of a blower to force
oxygen through molten iron, thereby lowering its carbon
content while subsequently converting it into steel. Also
known as basic oxygen steelmaking, it was invented in the mid
1900s by Swiss engineer Robert Durrer. With the help of his
team, Durrer pioneered primary steelmaking in 1948. He
found that by forcing oxygen through molten iron, the carbon
content of the iron dropped. Therefore, Durrer was able to
easily create steel from raw pig iron using the primary
steelmaking process.
 Cont…
• Research shows that forcing oxygen through molten iron reduces its
carbon content by approximately 0.5% to 1.5%. The oxygen triggers a
chemical reaction known as oxidation that lowers the carbon content
of the iron. As the carbon content drops, the iron essentially turns to
steel.
• At the most basic, steel is made by mixing carbon and iron at very
high temperatures (above 2600°F).
• Primary steelmaking creates steel from a product called “pig iron.”
Pig iron is smelted iron, from ore, which contains more carbon than is
correct for steel.
• The steelmaker uses a system that bubbles oxygen through melting
pig iron. This process creates equal oxidization throughout the
molten metal. Oxidization removes excess carbon. It also vaporizes or
binds impurities made of elements like silicon, phosphorus, and
manganese.
Secondary steelmaking
• is done “in the ladle.” It is a process of refining and alloying
steel. Secondary steelmaking can start by melting scrap, or
continues a primary process. Elements can be added to get a
specific alloy. The steelworker can also remove surface
impurities (de-slagging). The ladle is heated and cooled to the
temperatures needed for the necessary chemical processes.
Properties of steel
Steel has a number of properties, including: hardness, toughness, tensile
strength, yield strength, elongation, fatigue strength, corrosion, plasticity,
malleability and creep. The properties that are most important in wear and
abrasion-resistant steel are:
• HARDNESS is the material’s ability to withstand friction and abrasion. It is
worth noting that, while it may mean the same as strength and
toughness in colloquial language, this is very different from strength and
toughness in the context of metal properties.
• TOUGHNESS is difficult to define but generally is the ability to absorb
energy without fracturing or rupturing. It is also defined as a material’s
resistance to fracture when stressed. It is usually measured in foot lbs.
per sq. in or Joules per sq. centimeter. It is important to distinguish this
from hardness as a material that severely deforms without breaking,
could be considered extremely tough, but not hard.
• YEILD strength is a measurement of the force required to start the
deformation of the material (i.e. bending or warping).
• TENSILE strength is a measurement of the force required to break the
Different type of steel
4 Different Types of Steel
• Stainless steel
• Carbon steel
• Alloy steel
• Tool steel
1. Stainless Steel: ( Types of Steel )
• Stainless steel is very popular among all types of steels. It is
shiny in appearance and has 10 percent to 20 percent of
chromium as alloy. Using chromium as alloy prevents the steel
from being corroded and enables it to mould easily into
various shapes. Due to its ductility and flexibility stainless steel
is best suited for silverware, home applications, surgical
equipment etc.
Stainless steel is of four different types:
a) Ferritic
• Ferritic is the stainless steel in which chromium percentage
lies in between 10. 5 percent to 30 percent. This type of steel
does not have carbon content more than 0. 1%. It is magnetic
in nature and has high resistance against temperature
oxidation as well as stress corrosion cracking.
b) Austenitic
• Austenitic is a very common type of stainless steel and it contains
high nickel, molybdenum and chromium content. Austenitic is
used where high malleability and strength is required.
c) Martensitic
• This steel contains high carbon content which is around 1. 2
percent but it is structurally similar to the ferritic steel. Due to
high carbon content they can be hardened with large degree.
They are well suited for surgical instruments and medical tools.
d) Duplex
• In this type of stainless steel austenitic stainless steel is
combined with ferritic stainless steel which results into a metal
which is stronger than mild steel as well as carbon steel. Due to
its corrosion resistance they are well suited for marine
applications.
2. Carbon Steel: ( Types of Steel )
• Carbon steel is a dull looking and matte-textured steel. Carbon
steel is very prone to corrosion. Carbon steel consist of less
amount of alloying elements and it is very strong, therefore
carbon steels are used for making automotive parts, high tension
wires, knives and various items. Carbon steels are further divided
in three different categories on the basis of carbon content.
The three different types of carbon steel are:
a) Low Carbon Steel
• Low carbon steel is also known as Mild steel. Generally low
carbon steel consists carbon content in between 0. 04 percent to
0. 30 percent. This steel is found in several shapes ranging from
structural beams to flat sheets. For obtaining desired properties
in steel the carbon level is increased in structural steel. The
carbon level is usually kept low when more ductile steel is
required or when aluminum is introduced.
b) Medium Carbon Steel
• Medium carbon steel contains carbon in the range of 0.31
percent to 0. 60 percent. It has manganese content in
between 0. 06 percent to 1. 65 percent. Medium carbon steel
has more strength than low carbon steel due to higher carbon
percentage. Operations such as forming, cutting and welding
are difficult for medium carbon steel because as the carbon
content increases, ductility decreases. As the medium carbon
steel is generally harder therefore it is tempered by heat
treatment.
c) High Carbon Steel
• High carbon steel is also known as carbon tool steel and the
carbon content in this steel varies between 0. 61 percent to 1.
50 percent. This steel is difficult to bend, cut and weld due to
high carbon content. After heating high carbon steel becomes
brittle as well as hard.
3. Alloy Steel: ( Types of Steel )
• Alloy steel is the mixture of various different metals such as
copper, nickel and aluminum. It is cheaper and corrosion
resistant therefore it is used in pipelines, car parts, mechanical
projects and ship hulls. Their strength is determined by the
percentage of different metals the alloy steel contains.
Alloy steel is of various types:
• Low – alloy steel ,
• High strength low alloy steel,
• High – alloy steel,
• Stainless steel,
• Micro alloyed steel,
• Advanced high – strength steel,
• Maraging steel,
• Tool steel.
 Cont…
• Low alloy steel has alloy content (non – iron elements) less
than 8 percent and high alloy steel has alloy content higher
than 8 percent. This steel has better mechanical properties as
compared to carbon steel. Low alloy steel has high strength,
cost – effective and machinability. Low alloy steel is used in
the manufacturing of construction equipment's, pipelines,
military vehicles, ships, structural components etc.
• High alloy steel is very expensive in manufacturing and difficult
in processing but it has high toughness, hardness and
corrosion resistance therefore it is best suited for chemical
processing, structural components, power generating
equipment and automotive applications.
• The only disadvantage of alloy steel is that it has low
formability, machinability and weld-ability.
4. Tool Steel: ( Types of Steel )
• This steel is hard. It is scrape and heat resistant. It is generally used
for making metal tools such as hammers. Tool steel is made up of
tungsten, cobalt and molybdenum therefore they have high heat
resistance as well as durability.
Tool steel is of following different types:
a) Shock Resisting Tool Steel
• These tool steels have very high toughness and resistance against
impact but moderate resistance against wear. Therefore the
carbon content is kept in between 0. 45 percent to 0. 60 percent.
The main alloys used in shock resisting tool steel are tungsten,
silicon and chromium. Silicon is useful in providing strength to
ferrite but its higher amounts can result in high decarburization.
Chromium provides hardness as well as wear resistance.
• This steel is usually oil hardening but sometimes water hardening
is required for complete development of hardness. They are used
for making impact hammer and they are even used for
applications such as shear blades as well as table ware dies.
b) Water Hardening Tool Steel
• Water hardening tool steel has carbon content in between 0.
60 percent to 1. 40 percent and it is basically plain carbon tool
steel therefore it is less expensive. They generally possess less
hardness but by increasing the manganese content with
vanadium and chromium, the hardness and wear resistance
are increased considerably. Water hardening tool steels has
low carbon content for resisting shock and toughness. They
are used for cutting low carbon steels, wood, aluminum and
brass.
c) Cold Work Tool Steel
• Cold work tool steels are generally used to make tools which
are used for cold work applications. They have wide variety of
composition for meeting huge demands. The alloys which are
mainly used are vanadium, chromium, chromium – vanadium
or chromium – tungsten etc. Cold work tool steel has wear
resistance, impact resistant, high toughness and high abrasion.
They are of following three types:
• Air – hardening steels
• Oil – hardening steels
• High carbon high chromium steels

d) Hot Work Tool Steel

• Hot work tool steels are used in metal forming operations like
piercing, hot stamping, hot – drawing, hot – forging, swaging,
hot extrusion etc and the operation temperature is more than
200 ̊ C to 800 ̊ C. They have various desirable properties such
as good thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance; wear
resistance, toughness because they possess low carbon
content which is between 0. 3 percent to 0. 5 percent. The
alloying element is also present in small content.
• Alloys used in hot work tool steel are vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, chromium
etc. As the tungsten content increases the resistance against abrasive wear
also increases. This in turn decreases the resistance against thermal shock.
Cobalt increases resistance against erosion and thermal shocks.
They are further divided into three types:
• Hot work chromium tool steel
• Hot work tungsten tool steel
• Hot work molybdenum tool steel
e) High Speed Steel
• In high speed steel high alloy content is used as this steel is used for high
speed metal cutting. Alloy used in high speed steels are cobalt, tungsten,
molybdenum, chromium etc. High speed steels have carbon content greater
than 0. 60 percent. They have high hardness, toughness and resistance
against wear.
They are further classified into two types on the basis of alloy element used:
• Tungsten high speed steel: They have high tungsten content with vanadium,
chromium.
• Molybdenum high speed steel: They have molybdenum, chromium,
tungsten, vanadium content in it.
Iron vs steel
• Steel differs from Iron as it is an alloy and not an element. An alloy
is a mixture of different metals or a metal mixed with another
element. Steel is made by mixing a small percentage of Carbon with
Iron. The Carbon content usually doesn’t exceed 2.1% by weight.
The presence of Carbon gives strength to Steel than just plain Iron
and becomes more applicable to varied uses. However, higher the
Carbon content used, the more brittle the Steel would be

• Steel also possess other alloying elements such as Chromium,

Nickel, and Manganese. These elements are added in order to
prevent Steel from rusting. What happens here is that, instead of
Iron getting Oxidized, Chromium, which has a lower oxidation
potential, gets oxidized protecting the iron. Therefore, Steel remains
shining for a lot longer
 Cont….
Elemental Composition
• Iron is an element in itself.
• Steel is mainly made up of Iron and Carbon, and it also contains
percentages of elements such as Chromium, Nickel, etc.
Properties
• Iron is not as strong as Steel and is less brittle.
• The addition of Carbon to Steel makes it stronger than Iron.
However, it also tends to make steel brittle.
Applications
• Iron is used for some applications; however, is not used in finished
products and structures where a lot of strengths is required.
Therefore, the usage of Iron as a pure metal has reached a limit.
• Most of the uses of Iron have been replaced by Steel as it possesses
many desirable properties.
Thank you